(RETURN TO THE TITLE PAGE) 500 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND of the prospectus that it would appear weekly, could not be kept, though Logan struggled hard with his little hand press and his battered type, worn down to the third nick, to keep faith with his few subscribers. The "Gazette and Register" was a little four page sheet of four columns to a page. As these sixteen short columns gave more than ample space in which to chronicle the actual happenings of the town, the editor drew liberally upon the periodical press of London, New York and Boston, and other literary and news centers for items of interest to his readers. The reader will find m the "Autobiography of a Pioneer Printer," by Eber D. Howe, a description of Logan as "a small man of dark complexion, said by some to be a lineal descendant of the famous Mingo chief." However this may be, to have been the founder of Cleveland's first newspaper will be his chief title to fame. The first number of the "Cleveland Herald" was printed October 19, 1819, and shortly thereafter Logan's little paper ceased to exist. The "Herald" was founded by Eber D. Howe and the press and type were brought here from Erie, Pennsylvania. Mr. Howe himself has told the story of the early struggles of the paper, which for sixty years or more wielded a considerable influence on the Reserve. "I commenced looking about for material aid to bring about my plan for putting in operation the 'Cleveland Herald.' With this view I went to Erie and conferred with my old friend Willes, who had the year before started the `Erie Gazette.' After due consultation and deliberation, he agreed to remove his press and type to Cleveland after the first year in that place. So on the nineteenth clay of October, without a single subscriber, the first number of the `Cleveland Herald' was issued." The list of subscribers of the first two years stood at about three hundred. These were scattered widely over the Western Reserve and the delivery was made in large part by Howe himself. Writing of it in the autobiography, he says, "Each and every week, after the paper had been struck off, I would mount a horse, with a valise filled with copies of the 'Herald' and distribute them at the door of all subscribers between Cleveland and Painesville, a distance of thirty miles, leaving a package at the latter place; and on returning, diverged two miles to what is known as Kirtland flats, where another package was left for distribution, which occupied fully two days. I frequently carried a tin horn to notify the yeomanry of the arrival of the latest news." Mr. Howe continued with the "Herald" for two years and then disposed of his interest to his partner Willis. It occupied the journalistic field without a rival for some thirteen years. In 1832 there was founded the "Advertiser," the predecessor of the "Plain Dealer"; in 1834 L. C. Rice set up the "Whig," later published by Rice and Penniman for about two years. Between 1830 and 1840 we had in addition to the above the "Messenger ;" "Ohio City Argus" ; "Daily Gazette" ; "Journal" ; "Commercial Intelligencer" ; "Palladium of Liberty"; "Agitator"; "Axe"; "Morning News"; "Morning-Eyed -News Catcher" ; and "Morning Mercury." Most of these were very shortlived, representing for the time the shifting personal or political ambitions of men and parties. The "Cleveland Liberalist" edited by Dr. Samuel Underhill, physician and justice of the peace, and published by Underhill and Son, announced in its prospectus that it was to be "devoted to free enquiry. Opposed to all monopolies—in favor of HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 501 universal equal opportunities for knowledge in early life for every child ; discourager of all pretensions to spiritual knowledge ; teaches that virtue alone produces happiness ; that vice always produces misery ; that priests are a useless order of men ; that schoolmasters ought to be better qualified, and then should have higher wages ; that the producing classes are unjustly fleeced; that nobles by wealth are as offensive to sound democracy as nobles by birth—both are base coin; —and it inserts the other side of the question, when furnished in well written articles." It is natural to suppose that on some of these old hand presses were printed such broadsides as the time demanded, though little or no trace of them is to be found. At some points on the Reserve, notably at Warren, Painesville and Hudson, books were printed as early as 182o; but perhaps the earliest of Cleveland imprints are those found on the almanacs for 1828 and 1829, published by Henry Bolles, "publisher and bookseller," a few doors east of the Franklin house. The directory of 1837 locates the Franklin house at 25 Superior street. It is not certain that these almanacs were a product of the Cleveland printers art throughout. It is possible that they were brought out "ready made" from the east and that Bolles merely added cover and wrapper with his advertisement. Another early Cleveland book is the Cobb speller of 1834, which though it bears the imprint of J. Kellogg & Company, Cleveland, was stereotyped in New York and if printed here, was struck off from these stereotype plates. As J. Kellogg & Company, do not appear in the directory of 1837, either as printers or booksellers, it is possible that they were neither, but rather agents for this, and perhaps some other school books in the new country then opening up. It is difficult to fix the exact date at which the first book business was opened in Cleveland. When the first directory was printed in 1837, at which time the population must have been under five thousand, there were at least three, more or less flourishing shops where books were sold. The literary character of the place is reflected in an advertisement—appearing in a conspicuous place in the directory —of the "Shakespeare saloon"—"where strangers will find an agreeable retreat and every attention paid to their comfort and convenience." Earlier than this, however, in the "Whig" of August 20, 1834, there appears a very attractive list of new books advertised by A. P. Parker, bookseller, "nearly opposite the postoffice." The list includes many of those authors which the library of no gentleman of that day was complete without, such as Shakespeare, Byron, Horace Walpole's letters, the Tattler, Guardian, and Spectator, with a good sprinkling of the works of such noted divines as Milman, Robert Hall, etc. For the lawyer there were the works of Daniel Webster and the speeches of Curran, Grattan and Emmet. For the lover of romance, the delightful stories of Maria Edgworth and Sir Walter Scott, in ten volumes. There was Tasso's "Jerusalem," Milman's "History of the Jews," Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," and editions of the "Lives" of Plutarch and the soporific Rollin's "Ancient History." The list bears evidence of a knowledge not only of good books, but of the book business. Mr. Parker also announces a bindery in connection and that he is prepared to buy roan, sheep and calf skins suitable for the binding of books. We must in absence of proof to the contrary, set Mr. Parker down as the first regular bookseller in the city. 502 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND It is reasonable to suppose, though not certain, that Parker sold out to one of the firms which opened up business during the next two or three years, since he does not appear as a bookseller in the directory of 1837, and that the new proprietors were Alfred S. Sanford and Lewis P. Lott. They brought out the first Cleveland directory, compiled by Julius P. Bolivar McCabe, who lived at the Prospect cottage, Lake street. In the advertising pages of the directory, McCabe announced his "Annual Register of the State of Ohio," which he described as the first work of the kind attempted in the state. While the directory was in the press, Sanford and Lott moved to 17 Superior street and announced their new location on the back cover of the directory. Later the style of the firm became Sanford and Hayward and continued so for several years. They did much of the earlier printing of the town, particularly in a commercial way. Henry E. Butler had a small store previous to 1837 at No. 3 Superior street, where he kept a stock of periodicals as well as books and stationary, and advertised "pocket maps of the western states of the latest emissions." Butler evidently found the business unprofitable, for in the directory of 1845 he appears as a commission merchant at 88 Dock street. A name long connected with the stationary, printing and paper trade of Cleveland, is that of Moses G. Younglove, who, with Edward P. Wetmore in 1837 opened a wholesale and retail book and stationary store at No. 4o Superior street in the American house, which had just been completed. Younglove bought out his partner the next year and added job and news printing and publishing to his other business. He introduced the first power press into Cleveland and probably the second such press west of the Allegheny mountains. On this press he printed for many years the daily papers of the city. In 1848 he built with Mr. John Hoyt the Cleveland Paper mill, the first having steam power west of the mountains. This and other mills were afterwards united under the name of the Cleveland Paper Company, of which Mr. Younglove was president until 1867, when he sold his interest for a large sum. Early in the '40s John Brainard began the business of wood cut engraving at 2 Merchants Exchange, and many of the wood blocks for illustration and ornament at that time were by his hand. His work was rather superior to much of the engraving of that period and a specimen on page fifty-five of the Cleveland directory of 1848, shows him to have been a designer and craftsman of no mean order. By 1848 the number of booksellers and printers had considerably increased. H. B. Pearson conducted the Cleveland literary depot at the Arcade, 39 Superior street, and W. H. Smith conducted a wholesale and retail book and stationary store at 97 Superior street. Smead and Cowles had opened an extensive printing establishment in the Central building, where among other books they printed the directory of 1848, and B. F. Pinkham was a printer and publisher on the third floor of the Merchants Exchange. There were at that time ten newspapers and periodical publications. Among the early booksellers and stationers of Cleveland, no name is better known than that of Cobb. The three brothers, Caius C., Brutus J. and Junius Brutus, all served an apprenticeship with Mr. Younglove and upon his retirement bought the business and continued it under the firm name of J. Cobb & Company. They were men of bookish tastes and as the city grew they drew to their store a HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 503 very large trade. The wholesale business was pushed and extended to several neighboring states. The march of progress up town began about this time and they occupied a store at No. 137 Superior street, and for several years at No. 241 of the same street. At about this time Thos. A. Andrews was taken in as a partner and the firm became Cobb, Andrews & Company. They were among the first to recognize the importance of Euclid avenue as a future retail trade center and moved into very handsome quarters on that street about 1875. They did a very large business in books and stationary, both wholesale and retail, and the house was well known throughout the west and south. The business was purchased outright by the Burrows Brothers Company, in 1887 and the Cobbs retired to well earned leisure. There were other dealers during that period, but some of them had but a brief existence. Ingham & Bragg conducted a business for several years at No. 191 Superior street. Later the firm became Ingham, Clarke & Company, at No. 217 Superior street. C. S. Bragg afterwards became a member of the great firm of school book publishers, Van Antwerp, Bragg & Company, later absorbed by the American Book Company, while Ingham, Clarke & Company failed, and later moved to quarters in the American house in about the location occupied by Younglove, many years before. Mr. Ingham conducted the business here until his death, and many Clevelanders will remember the last bookseller of the old school. Of purely commercial and manufacturing stationers and binders, printers, and engravers and lithographers, Cleveland has had her share. Some of the houses now in existence do business in many states. Shore & Forman, who did business for many years on Superior street, were after a disastrous fire in 1891, succeeded by Forman, Bassett & Hatch at No. 225 Superior street. Brooks & Company have been long established at Nos. 98 and 100 Superior street, and are now in their own building at 122 and 126 Superior street. James B. Savage formerly dealt largely in office stationary and supplies at 67 Frankfort street, but has lately devoted his attention more to developing his large printing plant. Other booksellers of the early period were as follows : 1847. Book and job printers—Sanford & Hayward, 17 Superior street ; Bemis & Company, 5 Superior lane ; W. H. Smith, 55 Superior street. Engravers—Elijah Hurd, 34 Superior street. 1848-9, Book and job printers—Wm. H. Hayward, Plain Dealer building; O. S. Scovill, 7 Superior street. 1850. Booksellers-Wm. Leutkemeyer, 9 Water street ; E. H. Merrill, 158 Superior street ; Smith, Knight & Company, 59 Superior street ; A. S. Sanford, 17 Superior street. 1853. Booksellers—Morris B. Baer; E. Heisell, 8o River street ; Jewett, Proctor and Worthington, 136 Superior street ; E. G. Knight & Company, 59 Superior street ; E. H. Merrill, 8 Prospect street ; Tooker and Gatchel, 02 Superior street; W. A. Ingham first appears this year as a bookseller at the corner of Detroit and Pearl streets. Books received from the eastern market at their earliest publication. E. G. Knight & Company advertise that they have arrangements for importing books from Europe. Tooker & Gatchel were publishers as well as booksellers, both wholesale and retail. 504 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND 1856. Spear Denison & Company—printed the directory ; Baer & Company advertised the Hartford Bookstore at 168 Superior street. 1857. Directory compiled by William V. Boyd. 1859-60. Directory published by J. S. Williston & Company ; eleven firms selling books ; Fairbanks, Benedict & Company, publishers and proprietors of "The Herald," also book and job printing. CHAPTER LV. NEWSPAPERS. It is quite impossible to give even a list of all the newspapers that have been started in Cleveland. In the days of the hand press it took but little capital to begin a paper and itinerant printers wandered from town to town seeking favorable locations for setting up their press and championing some cause, for these early efforts were often fiercely partisan in the cause of religion, politics or morals. Most of these papers failed within a year, sometimes they lived two or three years. Frequently several of them were purchased by the same proprietors and amalgamated. And in a few instances in our city, the enterprise and persistence of the editors prevailed against the years and established journals of power and wide influence. The history of Cleveland's journalism can naturally be divided into several groups. First, the transients, the ephemera, who scarcely had their ambitious wings spread to the air, when destiny cut their career. Only the names of these papers survive, often the editors and publishers share a less kindly fate and are entirely forgotten. Second, the papers representing special interests. Third, the foreign papers that have more recently multiplied in the city. And finally the successful papers that have contributed for many years, more or less worthily, always potently, to the life of the city. Among the short lived papers must be enumerated Cleveland's first newspaper, "The Cleveland Gazette and Commercial Register." Its first issue appeared on Friday, July 31, 1818. It was a tiny sheet of four pages, edited by Andrew Logan, said to have been a lineal descendant of the noted Mingo chief, Logan. He had come from Beaver, Pennsylvania, laboriously carrying his press and type with him. His type were so worn that they were almost illegible. The paper was a weekly, but often its regular days of publication were delayed by lack of paper. Thus on December 8, 1818, the editor tells his patrons that they need not expect any more copies until he returns from a trip to the nearest paper supply. This took him two weeks. He was often compelled to print on half-sheets. November 9, 1819, C. V. J. Hickox was associated with Logan. On March 21, 1820, "The Gazette and Register" was discontinued. It probably succumbed to the serious competition of the newly established "Herald." (1) In 1827 the whigs of this county established "The Advertiser," a daily paper, with Madison Kelley, an able man, as editor. The Hon. John W. Allen, a worthy 1 - See "Herald," Vol. r, No. 20. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 505 and energetic public man, for some years in congress, wrote the initiatory editorial, and the new journal seemed launched on a prosperous career. It was purchased some time later by the "Plain Dealer," and became violently anti whig. But the whigs were not to be outdone. On August 20, 1834, L. L. Rice, of the "Ohio Star," started the "Cleveland Whig." He associated with him a Mr. Penniman, and under the name of Rice & Penniman, one hundred and twenty-two numbers were issued, when the paper was sold, December 17, 1836, to Whittlesey & Lewis. In the summer of 1836 Colonel Charles Whittlesey established the "Daily Gazette." This paper he amalgamated with the "Cleveland Whig" under the name of "Cleveland Weekly and Daily Gazette." On March 18, 1837, this paper was consolidated with the "Herald" and published as the "Cleveland Herald and Gazette." In May, 1836, "The Cleveland Messenger" was started by Beck & Tuttle. It died within the year. On May 26, 1836, the first paper on the west side was published, "The Ohio City Argus" by T. H. Smead and Lyman W. Hall. It was mildly whiggish. Hall withdrew in 1836 and Smead published and edited the paper. He was a splendid craftsman, a man of unusual ability and one of the best printers in the city, becoming associated later with Mr. Cowles as Smead & Cowles. In 1838 its name was changed to the "Ohio City Transcript." It was discontinued in 1839. On September 10, 1836, the Cleveland "Liberalist" was issued by Dr. Samuel Underhill as editor and proprietor. It was "devoted to free enquiry" (2) but was looked upon as an infidel sheet. It lived scarcely a year. In July, 1836, Rev. S. I. Broadstreet, a Presbyterian clergyman, issued "The Cleveland Journal," a religious journal. The following year Rev. O. P. Hoyt became editor, when it was consolidated with the "Observer," at Hudson. The paper was published in this city under the name "Cleveland Observer ;" in 1840 it was removed to Hudson and the name again changed to "The Ohio Observer." In 1838 "The Daily Commercial Intelligencer," edited by Benjamin Andrews, was born and died. The Tippecanoe campaign of 1840 brought forth "The Axe," a partisan paper, issued from April 23 until after the election. The log cabin ensignia was conspicuous on the front page, and campaign slogans and songs, rough and original, filled its columns. Two other papers began and perished in the year 1840. "The Christian Statesman" or "Christian Whig," the name seems to be in doubt, issued only one copy. "The Cleveland Agitator," an anti-slavery organ, lasted less than a year. In 1841 Gage Mortimer Shippen began an independent paper called "The Daily Morning News." The Rev. Mr. Butts began an abolition paper "The Palladium of Liberty," and David L. Wood started "The Eagle-Eyed News-Catcher," a daily. The "Daily Morning Mercury," edited by Calvin Hall, and the "Mothers and oYung Ladies Guide," edited by Mrs. M. M .Herrick, were also started in 1841. All these papers lived less than one year. From 1842-44 the "Cleveland Gatherer," a weekly paper, edited by E. B. Fisher, flourished. 2 - City Directory, 1836. 506 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND In 1843 the Millerites published "The Second Adventist" under the management of T. H. Smead. The paper died with the futile hopes of its subscribers for the Second Advent. In 1844 the "Ohio American," a liberty party sheet, was established. In 1848 it united with the "True Democrat," which later became amalgamated with the "Leader." R. B. Dennis was editor of the "American" which was published on the west side. Dennis was a man of considerable ability, and in 1870 was speaker of the Ohio house of representatives. The campaign of 1844 brought forth the "Declaration of Independence," published by T. H. Smead, edited by Quintus F. Atkins. It was a vehement antislavery sheet, supporting Birney. At the end of the campaign its publication ceased. In 1845 Peter Baxter started the "Cleveland Weekly Times" with Horace Steele as editor. The "Plain Dealer" bought it in 1848. The "Ohio Universalist and Literary Companion," a weekly, was also started on a brief career of about two years, with George H. Emeron as editor. The "Western Reserve Magazine of Agriculture and Horticulture" was begun in February, 1845. It was a monthly published by M. C. Younglove. F. R. Elliott, a nurseryman, who owned a flourishing nursery on Detroit road, a mile and a half from the city, was the editor. The magazine lasted but a year. September 10, 1845, "The Cleveland Times" was first issued by H. Steele and P. Baxter, publishers and proprietors. At first it was published as a weekly, every Wednesday. Later it was also issued as a daily. In April, 1846, R. Hddock replaced Steele in the partnership. The paper was published in the Phoenix building. It was extremely partisan and proclaimed itself as a paper that "shall fearlessly maintain the true principles of Jeffersonian democracy and which will not vacillate in its course or truckle to political opponents for mercenary purposes." It was discontinued between 1848 and 1849. The first issue of the "Daily True Democrat" was printed on January 13, 1847. E. S. Hamlin and E. L. Stevens were the editors. It was a morning paper devoted to freesoil and abolition, and unalterably opposed to the democratic party. The name was used purely in its descriptive, not its partisan sense. T. G. Turner became sole proprietor and junior editor, and in August 1848, Hamlin retired to go to Columbus to take charge of a freesoil paper with his "heart fixed on redeeming our country from the bondage of slavery." In 1848 the paper was devoted to Van Buren and Adams. In November, 1848, James A. Biggs was made editor, to be followed in April, 1849, by John C. Vaughn, who in turn was succeeded by Thomas Browne. He purchased the paper of Turner in May, 1849, and tried to make an afternoon daily of it, but was not very successful. Vaughn, a prominent freesoil politician, was recalled to the editorship and was assisted in 1851 by George Bradburn. In 1852 the paper was enlarged and three editions were issued, weekly, tri-weekly and daily. In 1853 it was consolidated with "The Forest City" and published by Gray, Medi11 & Cowles, on their steam press, north side of Superior street just below the old Johnson house. Later the "Leader" absorbed the paper. "The 'True Democrat' was published for principles and not money. It was a stanch advocate of the abolition of slavery. The publisher was poor and had HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 507 hard sledding. He generally went around Superior street Saturday night to borrow money enough to pay off his hands and then he would return it early in the week. How he paid the editors and publishers I never could find out. * * * John C. Vaughn, one of the editors of the 'True Democrat,' was a large, handsome man, seldom without a smile on his large, dark face, a strong writer and a graceful and persuasive orator. George Bradburn wrote over the signature 'Clam Jamphrey,' making a household word out of that harsh pseudonym. These and a few others were making the 'True Democrat' a dismal failure financially, but a mighty success politically and morally." (3) "The Temperance Artisan," a weekly, edited by B. F. Pinkham, lasted less than the year 1848. The "Spirit of Freedom" edited by self-styled "Law Reformers" lasted only a few months. "The Temple of Honor," a monthly journal in the interest of the temperance orders then in vogue, was published in 1848, but lasted less than two years. The year 1848 also saw the beginning of "The Northern Ohio Medical and Scientific Examiner," edited by John Wheeler, M. D. and C. D. Williams, M. D. It was short lived. The high school pupils edited "The School Boy" from 1848 to about 1855 or 1856. F. O. McGillicuddy was the publisher. The year 1848 is noteworthy in journalism as the year of the beginning of an influential German paper, "Germania," edited by E. Hessenmueller, at 24 Water street. About 1850 "The Spirit of the Lakes" was published by the Western Seamen's Friend society, Rev. R. H. Leonard, editor. By 1853 it became known as the "Spirit of the Lakes and Boatman's Reporter." On January 3, 1850, a weekly family paper "The Family Visitor" was begun. Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, S. St. John and O. H. Knapp were the editors and proprietors. It started in ambitious fashion and its few numbers were ably edited. There were splendid articles on scientific topics, literary contributions of merit and reviews of the doings of congress and legislature. Among the Cleveland contributors were Dr. Aiken, Rev. Perry, Rev. S. B. Canfield, Colonel Charles Whittlesey and James A. Briggs. In April, 1850, O. H. Knapp severed his connection with the paper and it was moved to Hudson and printed as a bimonthly in the "Observer" office. In May, 1851, S. C. Bartlett became one of the editors. In May, 1852, it was again moved to Cleveland and published by Sawyer, Ingersoll & Company, with M. C. Read as editor. It was discontinued about 1858. "The American Advertiser," edited by H. M. Addison, who seems to have been connected with many of the unlucky journals of his day, was begun. It died within the year. "The Temperance Banner," also edited by Mr. Addison, met a like fate. "The Cleveland Commercial" first appeared in November, 1851. It was a "family and business journal," edited by T. B. and L. G. Hine, "advocating morality, education, temperance and equal rights for all mankind, but no organ of any sect or party." It was later purchased by H. M. Addison, who in 1852 also published a temperance paper called "The Harpoon," a paper that was "to be continued until the enactment of the Maine law or its equivalent by the Ohio legislature." In 1853 the directory gives a long list of papers : 7 - John C. Covert, "Annals Early Settlers Association," Vol. 3, p. 868. 508 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND "The Daily and Weekly Forest City," begun in 1852, was a whig paper. Joseph and James C. Medill were publishers and editors. It united with the "True Democrat" in 1853. "The Golden Rule," a monthly devoted to anti-slavery, temperance and morals, edited by D. F. Newton and published by D. M. Ide, flourished several years, when it was moved to Mansfield. "Annals of Science," edited by Professor H. L. Smith and published by Harris, Fairbanks & Company, lasted only a year or two. "The American Magazine," a monthly devoted to homeopathy and hydropathy, edited by J. H. Pulte, M. D. and H. P. Gatchell, M. D., lasted until about 1856. "The New American Magazine," a monthly devoted to education and edited by B. K. Maltby, also lived a year or so. In 1856 the proprietors of "The Leader" published the "Cleveland Commercial Gazette," devoted to market and commercial news. It continued to 1868. "The Spiritual Universe" was born and died in 1857. "The Daily Review" edited by H. N. Johnson, lasted from August 29, 1857, until 1861. It was an independent little sheet of four pages, a morning paper and sold for one cent the copy, probably the first penny paper in Cleveland. And the first Sunday paper in the city was the "Sunday Morning Review," published April 18, 1858. It was the same size and price as the other daily editions, its four puny pages comparing significantly to the unwieldly weight of the modern Sunday edition. The public were evidently not prepared for a Sunday paper, for only eleven numbers seem to have been issued. In July, 1858, "The Cleveland Monthly Review" was published by the same proprietors. It went out of business in 1861. October 1, 1856, "The Daily Clevelander" appeared, edited by W. J. May. It was a democratic paper expounding the cause of Millard Fillmore. It was discontinued after the election. 1856 saw among others, the following papers appear and disappear : "The Cleveland Journal," W. A. Ingham, editor, monthly. "The People's Record," monthly, W. H. Day, editor ; "The Western Home Journal and Advertiser," semi-monthly. In 1857-8 "The Buckeye Democrat" and the "Independent" came and went and "Dodge's Literary Museum," edited by the widely known, Ossian Dodge, lived about two years. August, 1859, "The Old Soldiers Advocate," a monthly, Colonel G F. Lewis, editor and proprietor, was started. Lewis was land warrant and pension agent in Cleveland. He gave his paper away free. It was "devoted mainly to the interests of those who defended the nation during its last great struggle with England and their widows and children, who have been shamefully overlooked in order to squander millions of acres of the nation's land on smaller railroad corporations who are breaking on every hand from the weight of inherent corruption and carrying down with them thousands of stock gamblers and many good men, who, like 'Poor Tray' are ruined for no other reason than being found in bad company." This reads like a thoroughly up-to-date paragraph. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 509 When the war broke out the "Advocate" increased in size and a charge of thirty cents a year was made, which was later increased to one dollar. In 1876 it was vigorous in behalf of Greeley. It was discontinued soon after the election. In December, 1861, "The Army Herald" was started, C. G. Bruce, editor. In August, 1862, "The Soldiers Journal" was begun by the same editor. These papers continued until after 1865. They were published in Washington and Cleveland. 1859-60 saw the following experiments fail : "The Agitator," a semi-monthly temperance and anti-slavery paper, edited by Mrs. H. F. M. Brown ; "The Analyst" by J. A. Spencer & Company ; "The National Democrat," a daily and weekly edited by C. B. Flood; "The Vanguard," an atheistic weekly, edited by William Denton, Alfred and Anna Denton Cridge ; and the "Daily Dispatch" which lasted only four months. In this year two more monthly journals were begun. In 1859 the "Wool Growers Reporter," a monthly, was founded by Andrew Meader. Its scope was expanded to include manufacture of wool and it endured until the close of the war. "The Western Law Monthly" lasted only until 1860. Rufus P. Ranney was supervising editor and J. J. Elwell and M. A. King, associates. In 1861 "The Gleaner," a literary weekly, came to grief. The war put a damper on the newspaper business but in 1865 the "Evening Dispatch," a daily edited by Julius Spencer and E. Hardy, was begun. It flourished only one year. Brainard's "Musical World" had a more substantial career. Since the close of the war myriads of publications have come and passed away. Their enumeration would be unprofitable. The student of this class of publications can find them listed in the city directories. 2. The religious and special publications : In 1854 the Publishing House of the Evangelical Association was removed to Cleveland. The business of the concern soon outgrew its small quarters on Kinsman street (now Woodland) and in 1874 a new four-story brick block was erected on Woodland avenue. To this additions have been built from time to time. The periodicals published are all of a religious nature, the principal ones being "Der Christliche Botschafter" and "The Evangelical Messenger." Their circulation is general throughout the country. There are also published numerous Sunday school, young peoples' societies and missionary journals. The publishing house is managed by representatives of the denomination chosen by the General Conference. The German Baptist Publication Society removed to Cleveland in 1872. They secured a small property on Forest street. In 1874 this building was partially burned and a new location was secured on Payne avenue. Its publications are of a religious nature, the principal one being "Der Sendbote." In July, 1874, "The Catholic Universe" was founded by Rt. Rev. R. Gilmour, with Rev. T. P. Thorpe as editor. In 1877 Manly Tello became the editor. With the rapid development of the city came multitudes of special journals, representing special trades, labor and business interests, and all the multifarious activities of a great city. The influx of the foreign population has also brought with it the demand for newspapers in their native tongue. In 1909 the following papers were published in Cleveland: 510 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND Foreign.-Three Slavonian weeklies, one Italian weekly, one Austrian weekly, four Hungarian weeklies- and two dailies, one Jewish daily and two weeklies, and two Polish weeklies. Financial, Trade etc.—Six financial weeklies and one daily, twenty-three trade journals, two labor journals, one medical journal, one legal daily, one sportsman's journal. Religious—Eleven religious journals also twelve English weeklies, four English monthlies and six English dailies. 3. The important dailies: "THE CLEVELAND HERALD." On October 19, 1819, was issued the first number of a paper that became one of the most forceful influences for decency in our city, for the "Herald" during its sixty-six years of independent existence, never degraded itself by assuming the hypocritical attitude of self-righteousness and flaunting at the same time, the lurid banner of vice and sensationalism. The "Herald" was founded by Eber D. Howe, whose autobiography relates the story : "I commenced looking about for material aid to bring about my plan for putting in operation the 'Cleveland Herald.' With this view I went to Erie, and conferred with my old friend Willes, who had the year before started the 'Erie Gazette,' After due consultation and deliberation, he agreed to remove his press and type to Cleveland after the expiration of the first year in that place. So, on the 19th of October, 1819, without a single subscriber, the first number of the 'Cleveland Herald' was issued. Some of the difficulties and perplexities now to be encountered may here be mentioned as matters of curiosity to the present generation. Our mails were then all carried on horseback. We had one mail a week from Buffalo, Pittsburg, Columbus and Sandusky. The paper on which we printed was transported in wagons from Pittsburg and at some seasons the roads were in such condition that it was impossible to procure it in time for publication days. Advance payments for newspapers at that time were never thought of. In a few weeks our subscription list amounted to about 300, at which point it stood for about two years with no great variation. These were scattered all over the Western Reserve, except in the county of Trumbull. In order to extend our circulation to its greatest capacity, we were obliged to resort to measures and expedients which would appear rather ludicrous at the present day. For instance, each and every week after the paper had been struck off, I mounted a horse, with a valise filled with copies of the Herald and distributed them at the doors of all subscribers between Cleveland and Painesville, a distance of thirty miles, leaving a package at the latter place ; and on returning divirged two miles to what is known as Kirtland Flats, where another package was left for distribution, which occupied fully two days. I frequently carried a tin horn to notify the yeomanry of the arrival of the latest news, which was generally forty days from Europe and ten days from New York. This service was performed through the fall, winter and spring, and through rain, snow and mud, with only an additional charge of fifty cents on the subscription price, and as the number of papers thus carried averaged about sixty, the profits may be readily calculated." (4) 4 - Autobiography of Eber D. Howe, p. 23. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 511 The "Herald" was first "printed and published weekly by Z. Willes & Company, directly opposite the Commercial Coffee House, Superior street." In October, 1820, it was removed to "a building opposite Mowry's Tavern and a few rods from the Court House." In July, 1823, it moved again to a new building on Superior street "a few steps east of Spangler's Coffee House." In August, 1845, the office was moved into the "Merchant's exchange" and a new steam power press was installed. This was a great curiosity. In January, 1851, the prosperous paper moved into a building of its own, the Herald building, 60 Bank street, a stone and brick block, four stories and basement with sand stone front, "the first stone front business block in Cleveland." The stone was quarried nine miles up the canal. The postoffice was located on the first floor. Quaint Eber Howe sold his interest in "The Herald" in 1821 and moved to Painesville, where he edited the "Telegraph." Meanwhile the "Gazette" succumbed to the vigorous competition and the "Herald" was without a rival for nearly thirteen years. In 1826 Willes, on account of poor health, was compelled to withdraw from the paper. He died in Bedford four years later. He was a native of Vermont, with the high idealism and firm dogmatism of the New Englander. Jewett Paine succeeded Willes but he died within two years after his purchase of the paper, and John R. St. John became editor. In April, 1832, Benjamin Andrews of the "Conemaugh Republican" assumed control. He was a public-spirited man, a prominent politician, and for a while was postmaster. In August, 1834, L. L. Rice began the publication of the "Cleveland Whig," a weekly, that became a semi weekly in March, 1835. In May, 1836, Rice also started the "Daily Gazette," which he sold to Whittlesey & Bliss, January 1, 1837. In the spring following, Whittlesey & Harris purchased both the "Gazette" and the "Herald" and combined them under the name of "The Herald and Gazette." Colonel Whittlesey dropped out the following year and Josiah A. Harris became sole editor. September 27, 1843, the name was again changed to "The Herald." Early in 1850 A. W. Fairbanks, of the "Toledo Blade" joined Harris in a printing and book binding business and in the publishing of the "Herald." In 1857 Harris retired from the paper after continuous service of twenty years. He was a stout hearted, honest and faithful journalist and Cleveland owes him a large debt of gratitude for his manly work. The firm of Fairbanks. Benedict & Company now operated the "Herald." In 1872 Mr. Benedict died and Fairbanks purchased his interest from the executors. In the autumn of 1877, Richard C. Parsons, one time congressman from this district, and William P. Fogg, purchased the paper and organized "The Herald Publishing Company," Parsons assuming the editorship and Fogg the business management. They soon relinquished these positions, the stock was scattered among various owners, the lack of personal virility brought the paper into financial straits, and in 1885, after an honorable and notable career, it was divided between its two competitors, "The Plain Dealer" purchased the physical plant, "The Leader," secured the spiritual plant, the good name, franchise and subscribers. The "Herald" was for years our leading newspaper. It will not be out of place to record here some of the struggles that editors passed through in the pioneer days. The lack of paper was one of the harassing circumstances, In 1820 paper was ordered from Buffalo, but its failure to arrive caused the issue 512 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND to be printed on half-sheets and there were not enough numbers printed to go around. The winter of 1823 was peculiarly severe and several issues were omitted because of the want of paper. In September, 1825, the Herald had boldly increased the size of its paper but on March 26, 1826, it appeared in small form again. "The matter was nearly all prepared for the press when it was found that no paper of the usual size was to be had * * * The great distance we shall be obliged to send and the almost impassable state of the roads render it uncertain when we shall be able to resume publication in an enlarged form." Again in February, 1828, the issues had to be printed on half-sheets. In July, 1833, the paper apologized to its readers for the lack of margin, the columns edging the very ends of the sheet. The paper makers had "miscalculated." After 1840 the better transportation facilities did away with this annoyance. The prosperity of the paper was measured by its type and size and its willingness to trade. In 1820 the "Herald" advertised "the following articles will be received in payment for papers : flour, pork, oats, corn, tallow, butter, cheese and sugar." This offer appeared frequently. As late as 1845, it advertised for "good butter and fresh eggs" in payment for subscriptions. In 1831 the list has grown to "good wood, potatoes, oats, hay, fresh butter and eggs wanted immediately in payment for 'Weekly Herald.' " In September, 1827, the editor complained of the delinquency of his subscribers. "Money is the grand operative and stimulus to action," he said. The securing of news was another difficulty. The days of publication were frequently changed to accommodate the paper to late stage coaches. The Columbus mail, carrying the news from the legislature, was especially dilatory. The roads southward were in frightful condition in spring and late winter. So in 1828 the editor complains that the Columbus mail was late six to twelve days as usual. "We think six to seven days should be enough to get mail from Columbus to Cleveland." On April 6, 1837, this commendable sentiment was expressed by the editor. "If we give no news to our readers today, our apology must be found in the fact that the mails bring none. We cannot furnish what we do not receive." This was before the day of the imaginative reporter. The advent of the "magnetic telegraph" was a great boon. In 1848 the paper, with great pride, advertised that it received news "by telegraph to Pittsburgh," thence by mail to Cleveland. On November 2, 1854, the "Herald" and "Plain Dealer" made joint arrangements to get New York telegraphic reports by the Associated Press. The latest market quotations were especially desired. The "Herald" was started as a weekly of small proportions and four pages. It increased in size as prosperity warranted. With the absorption of the "Daily Gazette," it published a daily edition and also a bi-weekly. "THE PLAIN DEALER." On January 6, 1831, appeared the first number of the "Cleveland Advertiser," edited and published by Henry Bolles and Madison Kelley. It was soon sold to W. Woodward, who sold it to H. Canfield and T. P. Spencer late in 1834 or in January, 1835, and they moved it "over the postoffice," on Superior street. It was a small weekly paper of democratic poli- HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 513 tics. In 1836 it became a daily sheet and in 1837 the editorship was changed to Spencer & Curtis. In 1841 J. W. and A. N. Gray bought the paper and changed its name to the "Plain Dealer," a name that exactly suited the outspoken, trenchant style of J. W. Gray, the editor. In November, 1842, the paper was moved over Dr. Clark's durg store on Main street, and united with the job printing establishment of Penniman & Bemis. It was published on "terms to suit special payments." In 1853 it was published in the "Plain Dealer" building, corner of Vineyard and Superior streets, thence it removed to the Drum block, corner Seneca and Rockwell, then to the old "Herald" building in 1885. Early in 1896 the paper was removed to its present favorable site, corner Superior and Bond streets and now occupies its splendid new home, erected in place of the one destroyed by fire in 1908. The editorial vicissitudes of the "Plain Dealer" have been numerous. J. W. Gray was the editor from 1841 until his death in 1862. Hon. John C. Covert, who for many years was connected with the "Leader" describes J. W. Gray as "a small, slight man, with a fine head and a pleasant face. Gray was a democrat through and through; saucy, piquant, always attacking somebody and seldom allowing the forms of his paper to go to press unless they contained a few paragraphic stabs. * * * He would write a paragraph denouncing the whigs for their rascality and corruption and then call upon the democrats to save the country. These paragraphs generally ended with the admonition, 'watch and pray.' It would be difficult to explain how Gray made people laugh, there was something elusive in his wit and fun, but it was always striking." * Gray had associated with him many men, and there were constant changes in the style of the firm name. May 17, 1853, the caption Gray, Beardsley, Spear & Company, is indicative of a sort of cooperative plan, plan, the men associated with Gray being all employees of the paper. The arrangement lasted only a short time. In 1855, J. P. Cleveland, later a distinguished judge of our courts, became one of the editors and he remained with the paper in various capacities until 1857, when he became deputy clerk in the United States District Court. He was succeeded by "Artemus Ward," Charles F. Brown, who became associate editor. The files of the paper during Brown's regime are of great interest. His quaint genius illumines the flimsy columns of the struggling sheet and he radiates good humor and kindness. On November 10, 1860, he bids the following farewell to Cleveland. "VALE." "The undersigned closes his connection with the 'Plain Dealer' with this evening's issue. During the three years that he has contributed to these columns, he has endeavored to impart a cheerful spirit to them. He believes it is far better to stay in sunshine while he may, inasmuch as the shadow must of its own accord come only too soon. He cannot here in fit terms express his deep gratitude to the many, including every member of the Press of Cleveland, who have so often manifested the most kindly feeling toward himself. But he can very sincerely say that their courtesy and kindness will never be forgotten. * - Annals Early Settlers' Association, Volume 3, page 866. 514 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND The undersigned may be permitted to flatter himself that he has some friends among the readers of newspapers. May we meet again. CHARLES F. BROWN." (5) In 1861 A. M. Griswold became associate editor, but J. W. Gray's health failed. He suffered "from an affliction that prevents his reading and writing." On January 21, 1862, he offers the paper for sale and later in the year he succumbed to his disease. Gray was a very active and very emphatic man. He was especially keen for political news and in the presidential campaigns of 1848, 1852 and 1860, he revelled in sharp and often uncharitable political tilts. He was a close friend of Stephen A. Douglas and espoused his cause with great personal zeal. The outbreak of the war made his paper unpopular, but he gave the government his support following his distinguished leader, Douglas. After his death the paper languished. 'Advertising and circulation dropped off. For a while J. S. Stephenson managed the paper, with William Collins and George Hoyt as associate editors. In May, 1865, W. W. Armstrong of Tiffin, a man of considerable newspaper experience, purchased the paper of the administrator of J. W. Gray and a year later the paper bears the names W. W. Armstrong and William D. Morgan, editors and proprietors. This firm dissolved' in 1867 because of Morgan's ill „health and Fred W. Green, clerk of the United States District Court, bought a half interest, and the firm became Armstrong & Green. In March, 1872, Green retired and Armstrong again became sole owner and editor. On April 17, 1877, "The Plain Dealer Publishing Company" was organized with W. W. Armstrong as president, and George Hoyt, vice president. In 1885 L. E. Holden secured control of the paper. In 1893 Charles E. Kennedy, a newspaper man of wide experience, who had received his schooling on various Cleveland papers, became general manager. In 1898, E. H. Baker, also of large newspaper experience, joined Mr. Kennedy and these gentlemen leased the paper for a term of years. Under their management the "Plain Dealer" was brought to a high plane of prosperity. In 1906 on the expiration of their lease, Mr. Kennedy retired from the paper. Mr. Baker continues as manager. For many (years the "Plain Dealer" was an evening paper. In 1885 it was changed into a morning paper, with an afternoon edition. It began as a small four page six column sheet. For a time in the '60s it was increased to eight columns and large folio sheets. In 1881 it was reduced to quarto six column, eight pages, and in March, 1883, it was enlarged to seven columns, with a larger and wider page, but only four pages. In 1885 under its new management it fattened into eight pages and the days of its leanness and severe struggles were over. Among the names connected with the history of the "Plain Dealer" none is more honored than that of J. H. A. Bone, who became in 1885 one of its editorial writers and remained in its service until his death in 1906. For thirty years previous to his engagement with the "Plain Dealer" he had been with the "Herald," where he had commenced his quaint and charming contributions, signed "Spectacles." "The spectacles," he wrote in his first observation in the early '5os, "can be brought to look only on the good, the genial, or beautiful side of things, distorted by no partyism, colored by no personal predilections or dislikes." And 5 - "Plain Dealer," November 10, 1860. It is interesting to note that he spells his name Brown without the "e," not Browne, as is commonly done. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 515 these spectacles he wore to the last, their spiritual prisms flawless and undimmed. He had a memory of wonderful retentive powers, a mind of encyclopedic capacity and a sweetness of heart that repelled all animosity. He was well informed on all subjects and an authority on international politics. A collection of his editorials should be gathered in a book that the present generation might profit by their, reading, "THE CLEVELAND LEADER." "The Ohio American" established in Ohio City (west side) in 1844 by R. B. Dennis, was the germ of the "Leader." Its corps consisted of one pressman, Ralph R. Root ( later of the firm of Morgan, Root & Company, now Root, McBride & Company) three journeyman printers and two boys. Tradition has it that Edwin Cowles was one of these boys. It was a "Liberty Party" advocate. In 1845 Edwin Cowles, a printer, eighteen years old, became its publisher, and L. L. Rice its editor. The following year Cowles relinquished the publishing to M. W. Miller, who continued until 1848. In 1846, Hon. E. S. Hamlin, a former congressman from the Lorain district, founded the "True Democrat," a weekly anti-slavery whig journal. It was at first issued at Olmsted Falls but soon moved to Cleveland, where it absorbed "The American," the two papers being known as the "True Democrat" and advocating the principles of the Van Buren freesoilers. In 1848 James A. Briggs and T. 0. Turner purchased the paper and a year later John C. Vaughn and Thomas bought it. They brought George Bradburn from Boston in 1851 to edit the paper and his powerful pen made it popular throughout the Reserve. In 1852 Joseph Medi11, later the successful editor of the "Chicago Tribune," came to Cleveland and established "The Daily Forest City." Competition drove the "True Democrat" and "The Forest City" into consolidation, and Edwin Cowles was admitted to a partnership with Medill, under the firm name of Medill, Cowles & Company, Cowles having the management of the business department and Vaughn and Medill of the editorial department. In March, 1854, the paper, on the insistence of Cowles, was renamed "The Leader," a title descriptive of its long preeminence in Ohio journalism. Early in 1855 Edwin Cowles bought the interest of Medill and Vaughn and these latter gentlemen with Alfred Cowles, a brother of Edwin, went to Chicago and assumed control of the "Tribune." Edwin Cowles at once became the soul of the paper. He remained its editor until his death, But at various times he had others associated with him. For some years F. Pinkerton was his business partner, under the firm name of Cowles, Pinkerton & Company. This was dissolved in 1856, succeeded by E. Cowles & Company. In 1861-62 S. D. Page was associate editor. July 3, 1865, a joint stock company was organized called "The Cleveland Leader Company." The stock was largely owned by Mr. Cowles and those associated with him. The name was changed April 15, 1867, to "The Leader Printing Company." During most of its existence the "Leader" was published in the Leader building on Superior street, near the American house. In 1906 it moved into its present ample quarters on Superior and Bond, where it can eye its keen competitor across the way. 516 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND The "Leader" was from the first an anti-slavery paper, and when the republican party was organized it assumed a commanding place among Ohio republican journals. From the first it was a morning daily. Weekly and tri-weekly editions were also issued. The tri-weekly was very popular with the surrounding farmers and towns. In 1861 an afternoon edition was published, called the "Evening Leader." In 1868 this edition was called the "Evening News" and later when the "Herald" was purchased it was called the "News and Herald." For a time in 1857 the paper was increased from seven to eight columns. In 1865 its sheets were increased two and a half inches in size and the following year it was made a nine column paper. This made an unwieldy folio and January 1, 1874, it appeared in more compact quarto form of eight pages, six columns each. With this date the editorial page assumed a much greater importance. Three years later the size of the page was increased one and a half inches and in 1885 a similar increase was made. Its first Sunday edition appeared in 1877, a thin edition, with few cuts and no glaring head lines or chromatic monstrosities. It is claimed for the "Leader" that it was the first newspaper in Ohio that was printed on a rotary lightning press which delivered the sheets pasted, with leaves cut at top and folded, all in one operation. And it installed the first electrotype plates in Ohio. Edwin Cowles was the Horace Greeley of the west, the greatest editor Cleveland has produced. He was born in Austinburg, Ashtabula county, Ohio, September 19, 1825, learned the printer's trade in Cleveland, became publisher and editor at an early age, was one of the organizers of the republican party, was postmaster of Cleveland from 1861 to 1866, was a delegate to the republican national convention of 1876 and 1884, was an honorary commissioner to the Paris exposition of 1877, and was actively interested in every forward movement of his city. His tremendous energy, his dauntless will, his relentless dogmatisms and unchanging attachments, were all dominated by an eccentric personality that was at once powerful and tender. He had the genius of clear expression, straight thinking and a superhuman courage. He died March 4, 1890. For a time the paper was edited by Hon. J. C. Covert who later became United States Consul to Lyons, France. James B. Morrow followed him as editor. Mr. Morrow has now attained national recognition as a master of biography. James H. Kennedy, now of New York, a writer of western history, and a well known metropolitan correspondent, was a prominent member of the "Leader" staff. The stock of the paper found its way gradually into other hands. The personal interest in the management was wanting and the paper fell into lean years. In 1909 "The Leader" was leased to Charles E. Kennedy, whose tact and wisdom have long been known in the Cleveland newspaper realm, and to Nat C. Wright, whose virility as editor has impressed itself upon the city, and H. S. Thalheimer, for many years the business manager of the paper. Under this triumvirate of wisdom, energy and experience, the traditions of the earlier "Leader" will not be suffered to perish. "THE CLEVELAND PRESS." The first issue of the "Penny Press" was printed on November 2, 1878. , Ed. W. Scripps and John S. Sweeney of the "Detroit News" HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 517 were the promoters of this little seven column, four page folio with columns only eighteen inches long, that sold for a penny and excited at first so much mirth and skepticism as to its ability to survive. But the little sheet called "The Frankfort Street Handbill" created a market for its condensed paragraphs and unique, and often sensational, style of handling news items. The paper grew in circulation until its snug Frankfort street quarters were outgrown and about 1890 it was moved to its own building on Seneca street near St. Clair. In 1892 the columns were lengthened and the paper increased to eight pages. From the start an afternoon paper, it now issues many editions and the modern equipment of lino- types and Potter presses are kept constantly busy. Ed W. Scripps was the first editor. In 1881 he removed to Cincinnati to establish the "Post," and W. H. Little became editor. He was soon succeeded by R. F. Paine. H. N. Rickey became editor in 1901. He retired in 1905 to take charge of the entire Scripps-McRae papers. He was succeeded as editor by Earl E. Martin, the present editor. The "Press" is the most important of a large chain of newspapers supplied by the Scripps-McRae League, and its energy in news getting and its individualistic manner of news disseminating have made it prosper greatly. Three i;nen of national prominence in the newspaper world received their earlier training with the "Press :" Chas. Nelan, the cartoonist, S. E. Kiser, the humorist and poet, and John Vandercook (now dead), who became general manager of the United Press Associations. "THE CLEVELAND NEWS." On August 29, 1889, the first issue of "The Cleveland Daily World" appeared. It was the survivor of the "Sunday World," formerly the "Sunday Journal" published by the "Evening Star," a west side paper begun in 1889 by Doty & Hall ; and of the "Sunday Sun and Voice" and the "Evening Sun" started by George A. Robertson the same year. In the autumn of 1889 "The Morning Times" was started by H. E. Woods. By a process of amalgamation and elimination the "World" survived all these ventures. B. F. Bower, an experienced newspaper man from Detroit, assumed the management of the new venture and associated with him G. A. Robertson of Cleveland. In April, 1895, these gentlemen sold their interest to Robert P. Porter, who edited the paper until November, 1896, when, on account of financial difficulties, J. H. Clauss of Fremont, Ohio, was appointed receiver. Subsequently the paper returned to the hands of Mr. Bower and he remained editor and manager until 1907, when Charles A. Otis purchased the paper, together with the afternoon edition of the "Plain Dealer" and the "News and Herald" of the "Leader." All these papers were then amalgamated under the name of "The Cleveland News," an independent conservative paper, appealing &specially to the home. The "World" was an eight page afternoon daily and sold from the start for one cent and claimed to be the largest one cent paper of its size in the middle west. A fire destroyed the "World" plant on the evening of March 17, 1895. At noon the following day the regular edition was on the streets. The neighborliness of other newspapers and the reserve of type stored in another block were responsible for this feat. 518 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND "The Cleveland Recorder" was first issued on September 9, 1895, as a four page morning daily. In December, 1896, it was increased to eight pages and several afternoon editions were printed. It was published by the Record Publishing Company. George A. Robertson was editor and Roland B. Gelatt of the Detroit "Tribune" was manager. The paper was started as a partisan democratic journal. THE "WAECHTER UND ANZEIGER." The first German newspaper in Cleveland was the "Germania," begun in 1846. It was originally democratic but in 1852 was purchased by the whigs. It was not wholly in accord with the preponderating sentiment among the Germans, who comprised one fourth of the city's population. In 1852, when the slavery issue was rising to molten heat, a stock company was organized by Jacob Mueller and Louis Ritter, for the purpose of issuing a new German paper and on August 2d of that year the first number of "Der Waechter am Erie" made its appearance. It was devoted to the Union, the abolition of slavery and the promulgation of liberal culture. As an exponent of these principles, the paper was more than fortunate in securing as editor August Thieme, a scholar, essayist, journalist and humanist of ability, who at once made his journal potent. The "Germania" succumbed to competition about 1853. Until his untimely death in 1879, Thieme guided the destinies of the "Waechter." He was succeeded by Julius Kurzer as editor and Jacob Mueller as manager. In 1889 the controlling interest in the stock was purchased by Charles W. Maedje, who assumed the business management, while Carl Claussen and Paul Wolff were the editors. The paper was issued as a semi-weekly, later as a tri-weekly and finally on September 17, 1866, as a daily. At first it was published on Ontario street, later in the '70s on Michigan street, and finally on Seneca street. In 1872 Heinrich Gentz founded the "Cleveland Anzeiger." It passed through various hands and finally was purchased by William Kaufman and Emil Paetow, who jointly conducted the venture until in 1881, "The Anzeiger Publishing Company" was organized. Kaufman possessed a useful combination of business judgment and journalistic ability. His paper gradually veered from a decided republican to an independent position. In 1891 it absorbed the "Germania" and the "Deutsche Presse," both newly started ventures scarce three years of age. In October, 1893, "The Waechter am Erie" and the "Cleveland Anzeiger" amalgamated under the name "Waechter and Anzeiger." It is published by "The German Consolidated Newspaper Company" in a commodious building on Seneca street near Michigan, where is found all of the most modern equipment for a complete successful newspaper plant with a constantly increasing business. Since the consolidation, Simon Hickler has been the editor of this fearless journal. Mr. Hickler came to Cleveland from Milwaukee, where he had an ample experience in journalism. To his trenchant pen, devotion to the principles of individual and national freedom and an unusually well stored mind, this paper owes its constantly increasing influence in our city. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 519 CHAPTER LVI. PUBLIC SCHOOLS. An outline of the development of the public schools of Cleveland will embrace the following groups : (I) Buildings and equipment; (2) administration; (3) education. (I) BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT. The first schools in this vicinity were private schools, free only to the poor who were unable to pay the meager tuition. The first schoolhouse in the city was built on the lot where the Kennard House now stands. The accompanying cut illustrates this simple district school. The drawing was made from memory by a pioneer pupil, Miller M. Spangler, for Andrew Freese's volume on "The Early History of Cleveland Schools." The second school building was also built on St. Clair street, nearly opposite the first one. It was ready for occupancy in 1821 and for its day was "a neat and convenient academy, built of brick, with a handsome spire and with a spacious room in the second story for public use." 1 This academy was built by private persons but in 1839 it was purchased by the city for six thousand dollars. After the establishment of free schools by the municipality in 1836 the sessions were held wherever rooms could be rented. One was held in the Farmers block, corner Ontario and Prospect streets ; another in a building on High street that was later used as a stable; another in a transformed paint shop and a third in a renovated grocery store. These uncouth conditions finally appealed to the city council and by resolution of J. A. Foot, 1839, it was determined to buy a lot "fifty by two hundred feet and erect thereon such a schoolhouse as will accommodate two hundred children, in each of the four districts of the city." The committee to whom the resolution was referred purchased only two lots, one on Rockwell street and one on Prospect street. Contracts were at once let for these, the first school buildings erected by the city. The price stipulated was three thousand, five hundred dollars, including furnishings, fences and outhouses. In the spring of 1840, the Rockwell school was completed and in the following fall the Prospect school. The buildings were twins in plans and size, forty-five feet, four inches square, two stories high, of brick, as simple as could be designed. The seats were long pine benches, arranged around the room, the scholars facing the center of the room instead of the wall, as they did in the earliest schoolhouses. Two lines of these benches extended around three sides of the room. "The interior seats had nothing before them for their occupants to rest their books upon; but they rejoiced in having a good smooth board for their backs, a luxury denied to their seniors occupying seats behind them."2 This method of seating cost only fifty cents per pupil. The city council was very delinquent in meeting the housing problems of the schools. Only when absolutely necessary did they give their reluctant consent to a new schoolhouse. In 1845 the third schoolhouse was erected on the 1 - "Herald," June, 1822. 2 - Freese's "Early History of Cleveland Schools," p. 39. 520 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND corner of Kinsman (Woodland) and Erie street. The lot cost two hundred and fifty dollars and the building eight hundred dollars. In July, 1847, the fourth school was contracted for. It was built on Federal street (St. Clair street extension), near Murison. The lot cost "not more than three hundred and twenty-eight dollars," the building one thousand dollars. In 1850 the "Old Academy" was torn down and a three-story brick schoolhouse arose in its place. In 1849 the city paid two thousand, four hundred dollars for a lot sixty-six by two hundred and twenty feet on Champlain street. On this was built the finest schoolhouse in the city, a two-story brick, forty-five by forty- six feet, on the lower floors were two primary rooms, the upper floor contained a recitation room eleven by eighteen and a study room forty-three by ,thirty- three. The primary rooms were furnished with little chairs for the pupils, a great curiosity and improvement over the old benches. The building and furniture cost three thousand, six hundred dollars. In 1850 third stories were added to the Rockwell and Prospect schools. In succession were built Eagle, Brownell, St. Clair, Mayflower, Pearl, Kentucky and Hicks schools, and all of the same general type. They were not designed by professional architects but by the contractors and the school board. Charles Bradburn, of whom mention will be made later, for many years a member of the board, was active in evolving the "Bradburn schoolhouse," of which Kentucky school may be taken as a type. Plain, with only a cornice and two lone pilasters as ornaments, it stood typical of simple utility. These early buildings were heated by stoves. Brad- burn had experimented with furnaces and found them unsatisfactory. In 1856 he recommended steam heating and it was tried in some of the larger buildings. Before passing to the second era of school architecture, mention should be made of the first high school building. July 22, 1851, the council authorized the purchase of a lot one hundred and four by one hundred and ninety-seven feet on Euclid avenue, near Erie, for five thousand dollars. The Citizens Savings & Trust Company bought it fifty years later for three hundred and ten thousand dollars. On this lot was built a one-story wooden schoolhouse for temporary use. "The grounds were thickly studded with second growth trees and in summer it was a delightfully pleasant place. A drawing of the building and its surroundings was made by one of the pupils just before it was pulled down, from which the wood cut is taken. The top of a church, with its belfry, is seen beyond. It was in the basement of this church that the high school passed its earliest years. At the right is shown a building occupied for several years as a seminary for young ladies, a private school. Very few of the trees that existed are shown, since to one standing on the street, they nearly hid the building from view." (3) On April 1, 1856, the new high school building was dedicated. "The new building was the pride of Cleveland. People came from all over the state to see it. It was regarded as the finest high school in the west and many said that Cleveland was far ahead of the times and that the erection of so fine a building was a piece of extravagance." (4) It was a chaste building, with cut stone front, embattled cornice, turrets and portico. Its cost was only twenty thousand dollars. 3 - Freese's "Early History Cleveland's Schools," p. 42. 4 - Akers "Cleveland Schools in the Nineteenth Century," p. 82. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 521 In 1850 a visitor wrote to the "Herald," the Cleveland school buildings were the best west of the Hudson river. Some of them were "far more comely and expensive than any of the Yale College buildings, excepting the Library." (5) With the advent of Superintendent Rickoff in 1867, began a new period in school construction. Ventilation, heating, the arrangement of halls, lighting, the economy of administration, received for the first time the careful consideration of experts. Rickoff himself guided the architect, General Schofield, in the designing of the "Rickoff schoolhouse." The best type in the city is the oldest portion of the present Central High School building. He made floor plans for five other schools, including Broadway and Detroit schools, whose stately Gothic walls, well buttressed and surmounted by high roofs, remind us of the age of architectural display that followed the severe simplicity of the first days. The heating and ventilating of these buildings, as well as the arrangement of their rooms, appealed to experts all over this country and Europe. We find Rickoff receiving a medal and diploma from the Centennial Exposition for his advanced schoolhouse, and the French Commissioners, who visited Cleveland reported to their minister of education that these buildings were superior to those of Boston and New York. In the succeeding decade a newer type of schoolhouse was evolved. The board of education was compelled to build so many schools that it was deemed economy to employ an architect on a salary and Wm. H. Dunn was employed. He had studied architecture under General Schofield and the type of building which he designed distinctly shows the influence of his master. It was necessary to practice rigid economy. Owing to the financial panic of '78-9 the tax levies had been greatly reduced and in 1880 the authorities faced a serious housing condition. At Brownell, for example, there were six relief buildings on the lot and two rooms in a nearby church were used. Many other districts were similarly crowded, and no money was at hand to build. The legislature in 1878 had unwisely reduced the school levy from seven mills to four and a quarter mills. This was raised, subsequently, to four and a half mills. "Of the thirty schools in rented rooms, eleven were in churches, nine m saloon buildings, two in a refitted stable, five in dwelling houses, two in store rooms and one in a society hall. * * * Seven thousand, five hundred and eighty-five of the twenty-one thousand children in the primary and grammar grades, or more than thirty-three and one third per cent, were in non-permanent schoolhouses." (6) The legislature in 1883 authorized a special tax of one mill for five years for building purposes and the board at once contracted for seven buildings and in the following year seven more, in all fourteen buildings with one hundred and thirty-seven rooms, costing six hundred and forty-five thousand dollars, and accommodating eight thousand, two hundred and fifty pupils. But this was not ample. The growing city continued to strain the purse strings of the building committee. These buildings all have an architectural semblance. Indeed, many of them were made after the same plans. Their halls were very wide, they were built more compactly, had higher basements than the Rickoff type and were semi fire- 5 - "Herald," Vol. 23, No. 40. 6 - Akers, Supra Cit. p. 203. 522 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND proof in construction. They all have large "hip roofs," which added but little to the appearance and greatly to the cost. The latest period of school architecture in Cleveland dates from 1895, when the present school architect, Frank S. Barnum, was appointed. Again the revenues of the board were not sufficient to supply the demands of the rapidly growing city. Director Sargent was averse to bond issues, so the legislature passed an act levying a tax of one mill for building purposes. Immediately a new batch of schoolhouses was begun and the East and West high schools were planned. In 1895 adjustable seats were introduced, a luxury that our fathers on their high pine benches never dreamed of. In 1899 a hue and cry went up, augmented by the newspapers, against basement rooms. The director reported that year "there are now in use one hundred and thirty-one rooms, the greater portion of which are unsuitable for school purposes; thirty-six of these are in basements, twenty-six are rented rooms, twenty-seven are in recitation rooms and forty-two are in relief buildings." The money for the necessary buildings was secured by bond issues and special levies, From 1891-19oo three hundred and twenty-eight rooms, costing eight hundred and seventy-eight thousand, five hundred dollars, were built. But by 1901 the expanding city had again outstripped the efforts of the school authorities. A law was enacted providing a new bond issue and in 1902 eleven buildings were under construction. For the present the problem of housing the school children is practically solved. Mr. Barnum, by careful study of conditions and limited by the economies of the board of education, has evolved a radically new type of schoolhouse that has been adopted by most of the large cities of the land. It has a flat roof, is completely fireproof, contains assembly halls, gymnasia, shower baths, and dispensaries. The rooms are uni-latterally lighted, the ventilation is by fans, the heating by steam, the lighting by electricity. There is absolutely not a waste square foot in his model. It is compact, comfortable, and sanitary. The school boy of the "Old Academy" would be bewildered at its perfection. (2) ADMINISTRATION. Under its village government Cleveland had no public schools. The city charter authorized the common council to establish common schools to be administered by a board of managers elected by the council for one year. 'This board had complete charge of the schools, examined and employed teachers, fixed their salaries, provided the course of study and completely controlled the school routine. But its financial powers were curtailed. The city council only could levy a school tax and that was limited to one mill for building and one mill for operation. The board could buy supplies and make repairs for any sum not exceeding ten dollars. The sanction of the council was necessary for any larger expenditure. Thus the city council had control of the school system. On June 9, 1836, Councilman William Crow moved a resolution appointing a committee to continue the free school "until a school system for the city shall be organized at the expense of the city." This school was the old Bethel or ragged school for p00r children. On October 5, 1836, the council HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 523 appointed the first board of school managers, John W. Willey, Anson Hayden and Daniel Worley. The first school enumeration was authorized November 16, 1836. It was not until July, 1837, that the council finally passed an ordinance establishing a school system. There were then five thousand inhabitants in Cleveland and eight hundred children were attending the private and public schools. In April, 1837, a new board of managers was elected by the council : Samuel Cowles, Samuel Williamson and Phillip Battell. To the care of these able men was entrusted the launching of our municipal school system, and within two years a commendable begining had been made. Our school system had its birth the same year that the state established its system under its first and ablest state superintendent of instruction, Samuel Lewis. This form of school management continued until June, 1853, when the city Council created a "Board of Education," conferred upon its secretary the duties of "Acting Manager" and empowered the appointment of a "Superintendent of Instruction." The number of members was at first seven, but in 1854 was made eleven, and reduced to five in 1856. The legislature in 1859 provided that the board of education should be elected by the people, one for each ward, for a term of one year. This inaugurated the clumsy, large board that numbered at first eleven, later fifteen, seventeen and as high as twenty-six. March 8, 1892, the legislature enacted the widely heralded Federal Plan. This continued in operation until the Supreme Court decided it was unconstitutional, and in 1904 a new law was made operative, whereby a board of seven members are elected, five at large, two from districts. Under the first form of administration the board of managers had practical supervision of the educational work and they appointed one of their number acting school manager who combined the position of supervisor, business manager and general referee. The board appointed visiting committees, who were presumed to visit the schools and report their findings. The city council, however, retained the purse, and its grip was that of a miser. Periodically the board reported lack of funds. Several times the school year was shortened so as to save money. This for instance was done in 1847, when three hundred and fifty dollars was saved. As late as 1859 special teachers in drawing and music were discharged because of lack of funds. In 1861 four weeks were cut off from the school year and the teachers salaries were cut one-seventh to save money. The hard times in 1878-9 caused a cut of ten per cent in the salaries of those teachers who got more than six hundred and fifty dollars. When a superintendent of instruction was appointed, he assumed direct charge of the educational work. The city council still was omnipotent in money matters. Indeed it was not until many years later that the board of education became an independent body, co-ordinate with the city government. Under the large board plan many abuses arose. While occasionally men of the highest standing were elected to the board, as a rule, the ward politicians' influence was predominant. The appointing of teachers was delegated to a committee of the board who often overruled the superintendent's wishes. These conditions finally prompted the Federal Plan, that became a Model for other 524 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND municipalities, and that in spite of its inherent weakness of subordinating the educational to the business head, worked better than any other plan tried in Cleveland. Under this plan a business director was elected by the people for a term of two years. He was a real executive. His principal limitation was the expenditure of money. All sums over two hundred and fifty dollars could be expended only by consent of the council. He appointed the superintendent of instruction but could remove him only for cause. The superintendent was also a genuine executive, unhampered by petty committees and the phantoms of intrigue. He appointed and discharged teachers and directed all the educational work. The school council consisted of seven members elected at large. They were merely a legislative body, fixing salaries, appropriating funds, levying the school tax and adopting textbooks. H. Q. Sargent was the first director. He served eight years and was succeeded by Thomas Bell who served one term, when Starr Cadwallader was elected and his term of service expired with the Federal Plan in 1904. The present system of administration comprises a board of education of seven members, elected for four years, five at large, two from districts. They have full control of the schools, name the director and the superintendent, who in their turn, name their subordinates. The board can levy taxes up to twelve mills and issue a limited number of bonds without invoking any other authority. Since 1904, Charles Orr, for many years librarian of Case Library, has been director of schools. In the formative period of our schools when the loosely devised system of administration invited slip-shod work, when a penurious and uneducated city council made the securing of funds difficult and when the idea of free schools was repugnant to many of the citizens grown accustomed to efficient private schools, two men, who served many years on the board of managers, became jointly the real founders of the Cleveland public schools, Charles Bradburn and George Willey. Charles Bradburn was born in Attleboro, Massachusetts, July 16, 1808, received a diploma from the Middlesex Mechanics Association, attended a classical school at Ashfield, Massachusetts, became a merchant in Lowell and removed to Cleveland in 1836, where he engaged successfully in the wholesale grocery business. He was the sort of man who "energized" everything he undertook. He was for eleven years acting manager of the schools and a member of the board of education. From 1842 until 1861 he was almost continuously either on the school board or in the city council, working in behalf 0f the schools. His attention was devoted mainly to the physical equipment. His portrait, painted by Allen Smith, Jr., hangs in Central High School, the gift of the teachers. He died August 20, 1872. George Willey was born in Boston, Massachusetts, January 2, 1821. He graduated from Jefferson College, Pennsylvania (now Washington and Jefferson), came to Cleveland to study law with his uncle, Judge Willey, and in 1842 was admitted to the bar, For fifteen years he served as a member of the board of school managers, devoting his time more particularly to the educational, problems, the course of study, the training of teachers, discipline, etc. His annual reports reveal his ability. President Grant appointed him United States Attor- HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 525 ney. Afterwards he was the senior member of the firm of Willey, Sherman & Hoyt ; was president of the Library Association, and of the Board of Directors of the Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College, and other public institutions. He died December 29, 1884. Willey and Bradburn made a magnificent team ; the one, practical, energetic, keen-eyed, watched every building and every dollar; the other, good humored, philosophical, logical, saw the educational problems and was not afraid. It is difficult to see how the school system could have fared well during those loosely woven, formative years, but for these two splendid men. (3) EDUCATIONAL Five more or less distinct periods of growth may be discerned in the history of the educational development of the Cleveland schools. First, the formative period from 1837 to the appointment of the first superintendent in 1853 ; second, from 1853 to the appointment of Superintendent Rickoff, in 1867; third, from the appointment of Mr. Rickoff to the appointment of Superintendent Draper in 1892; fourth, from the appointment of Mr. Draper, to the report of the Educational Commission, 1905 ; fifth, 1905 to the present. 1. The formative period.—The Bethel free school, a charity effort, was the first school controlled by the city. In each of the three districts comprising the three wards, the board opened schools in rented quarters in 1837-8. Boys and girls were taught in separate classes. The enrollment in the schools was eight hundred, "the expense for tuition was eight hundred and sixty-eight dollars and sixty-two cents."* The teachers were "critically examined" by the board before appointment, the female teachers were paid five dollars per week and the male teachers forty dollars per month. No attempt was made at grading or classifying; there was no uniformity in textbooks, every child brought what texts were found at home. These schools were virtually like the old time district school. In 1842-3 hard times closed some of the schools and the wages were cut from forty dollars to thirty-two and a half per month, and from five dollars to four dollars and forty cents the week. These first years were also poisoned with, the bitter opposition of many people to free schools. "The board of managers have noticed with the most painful feelings the attempts that have been made during the past year to prejudice the public mind against our system of free schools. To effect this, there have been found among us, men, base enough to circulate the most atrocious slander against teachers, scholars and managers." (7) In 1843 some system was introduced for the examining of teachers. The rule provided that they must pass a "thorough examination in spelling and the rudiments of the English language as contained in Webster's spelling book ; they must be good readers both in prose and poetry, evince a thorough knowledge both in the rules and practice of arithmetic, and furnish satisfactory evidence of good moral character." It was difficult to secure teachers who could qustlify. In 1843 the board "recommended" certain school books. The primitive * - Frist Annual Report of Board of School Managers. 7 - Annual Report, 1842-3. 526 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND course of study included reading, geography, history of the United States, grammar, spelling, arithmetic, algebra and natural philosophy. The courses were not uniform in the various schools. There was great irregularity of attendance, much trouble at discipline, and severe corporal punishment was not uncommon. In 1845 the boys and girls of the senior department of the Prospect school were taught in the same room, this was the first attempt at coeducation. The same year a rather futile experiment was made in adding music to the course of study, Lowell Mason coming from Boston to address the citizens on the subject. The following year, however, the board engaged a teacher in music at one hundred dollars for the year. A writer in the "Herald" in 1848, complains of the "great lack of attention to spelling, punctuation, use of capital letters and penmanship in schools," (8) In 1848-9, uniform rules for all the schools, uniform texts and a uniform course of study were attempted, but not with much success. By 1850 a crude classification had been made into primary, intermediate, senior and high school departments. The close of this period of struggle finds a dimly defined course of study, including natural history in the intermediate. American history intellectual, algebra, and physiology and music and drawing in the senior deparements. We find the beginning of night schools in 1850, where four classes were held for thirteen weeks in the Rockwell building, five evenings a week, two hours each evening. Many excellent people in Cleveland fought long and fiercely against the establishing of the first high school. Charles Bradburn in 1844, asked the council to appropriate money for a central high school. For two years he failed to get even a hearing. In 1846, Mayor George Hoadley, in his inaugural address, earnestly urged "the establishing of a school of a higher grade," from which school "we might hope to issue the future Franklins of our land." On April 22, 1846, on motion of J. A. Harris of the school committee, it was resolved "that a boys' department of a high school be established ; that the school committee hire a room for such school, at an expense of not exceeding one hundred dollars per annum, and fit it up with desks at a cost of not more than one hundred and fifty dollars." This was the modest start of our vast and costly high school equipment. A basement room was rented in the Universalist church on Prospect street and on July 13, 1846, Andrew Freese called the forty-four pupils of the school to order. Before the end of the year he had eighty- three and in this damp and darkened room, heated by a peripatetic old stove, furnished with long pine benches, began the real work of our secondary public education. There probably has been no better quality of instruction in any of our princely buildings than was given in that lowly basement, to that fortunate group of boys, a true spirit of work prevailed there. The high school was now started but it was not established. A bitter onslaught was made upon it the following year, led by some of the leading townsmen, including H. B. Payne, who afterwards became one of the wealthiest of our citizens and United States Senator from Ohio ; and Harvey Rice, who has been called "the Father of Public Schools in Ohio" and whose monument stands in Wade Park, erected by the board of education and the city. 4 - Vol. 29, No. 15. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 527 In November, 1847, Mr. Payne introduced a resolution in the City Council asking for a discontinuance of a "select high school" until "an opportunity for obtaining a thorough common school education is provided to every child in the city over four years of age." This resolution was referred to a special committee composed of H. B. Payne, John Erwin and Charles Hirker. Payne and Erwin reported favorably, Hirker brought in a minority report, saying there was no legal objection to the high school and recommending its retention. A mass meeting was called to consider the question and influence of public sentiment. The city council finally, on the motion of Payne, ordered the school opened to girls also, thus overtaxing its little room. The struggle was then shifted to Columbus, where both sides sent delegations. Bradburn completely triumphed over Payne, by having a law enacted requiring the city council to maintain a high school and authorizing a special tax for that purpose. In the spring of 1848 Bradburn was named as a candidate for mayor against L. A. Kelsey. The issues were the school tax of four-fifths of a mill, and the high school. Bradburn on account of ill health could not participate in the campaign and was defeated. The vote stood 722 to 771. But enough friendly councilmen were elected to help the new school. The old council spitefully dropped Mr. Bradburn from the list of managers before they yielded to the will of the people, but Charles Bradburn had established the first high school and the petty council could not rob him of the honor. II. The second period begins with the election of Andrew Freese in 1853, as first superintendent of instruction. Mr. Freese had been connected with the schools for a number of years as principal of the grammar schools and later of the high school. He was to devote only a part of his time to his new duties and receive three hundred dollars a year as extra compensation; he received one thousand dollars salary as principal. He at once attempted to grade and classify pupils and schools. He found different text books used in the same grade in various schools, pupils had been advanced at the whim of the parent or teacher rather than on merit, there was not even a semblance of uniformity in the course of study. In a word there was neither plan nor rational individuality in the school system. Mr. Freese complained that "reading was badly taught," that in some schools "geography was taught by requiring pupils to commit to memory a large number of pages of definitions and descriptive matter, giving very little attention to maps ; in others, local geography was taught almost exclusively ; the pupils in one school had learned by great diligence and study to name and bound the counties of Ohio, while at the same time they could not name the five great divisions of the globe or even bound the state they lived in." The new superintendent began by dividing the schools below the high school into three divisions and subdividing each division into three classes, and to each class he assigned a definite task. This was the first systematic course of study in the schools, and parents and teachers resented this interference with their "rights." The small schoolhouses were a great obstacle to completing this classification. It was necessary to mix the classes in various rooms. The largest building sated only five hundred. Boys and girls were still taught in separate rooms and this added to the difficulty. 528 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND The high school was nine years old before it graduated its first class. For various reasons, principally lack of quarters and the confusion of moving from place to place, none of the pupils persisted in the four years' course until 1855, when a class of ten was graduated. In April, 1856, the new building was occupied. In 1856 Greek and Latin were first taught in the high school and a classical course is printed in the reports of 1857-8, The securing of suitable teachers was a very vexing problem. The superintendent was empowered to examine all applicants. He issued three grades of certificates and their pay depended upon the grade of their certificate. In 1854 their salaries were as follows : Male teachers, six hundred to eight hundred dollars per year. Female teachers were paid a per diem until this year, they were paid three hundred dollars, two hundred and seventy-five dollars and two hundred and fifty dollars. In 1854 the board first began to recognize length of service in ranking the pay, and in 1856 the pay was advanced to eight hundred dollars for the principals and four hundred dollars, three hundred and fifty dollars, three hundred dollars, and two hundred and fifty dollars for female teachers. In 1859 the legislature provided for a board of examiners of three to be appointed by the board of education who were empowered to grant four grades of certificates, In 1873 the number on the examining board was increased to six but subsequently reduced to three, the present number. An industrial school for incorrigibles was established in December, 1856, by the city council in the Champlain street schoolhouse. It grew later into an important work. In 1861 Mr. Freese indicated his preference for teaching and was relieved of his responsibilities as superintendent. Luther M. Oviatt was chosen superintendent. Mr. Oviatt had graduated from Western Reserve College, had been connected with the schools since 1848 and on his retirement from the superintendency in 1863 he became librarian of the public library. Under his administration the course of study was revised, the principal change being in the introduction of the "object lesson" method and the beginning of physical training. The teachers themselves paid for their lessons in physical training so that they in turn might instruct the children. The work was with wooden dumb bells and the superintendent reports : "these exercises are practiced at least twice a day in every department, each drill occupying from five to fifteen minutes, according to the grade of school. I entertain no doubt of this salutary effect on the minds as well as the bodies of the pupils." This was the beginning of our present highly specialized work in body culture. The new West high school building was completed in 1861. When Ohio City was amalgamated with Cleveland, the law only allowed one high school in the city. In order to provide the west side with accommodations a "branch high school" was established in the Kentucky building in 1855. In 1863 Rev. Anson Smythe was elected superintendent. He had been state commissioner of education, editor of the "Ohio School Journal" and superintendent of schools in Toledo. His first task was the still vexing problem of classification. The new superintendent also began to weed out the course of study. The "frills and fads" of the present day had pushed aside the "essentials" even in that mediaeval period of our school development. He reported that too many sub- HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 529 jects were crowded upon the child's mind and that recitations were too short. So he ordered longer and fewer recitations and reported to the board that "each lesson in grammar and arithmetic is nearly twice as long as those under the former program." Some advance was made in the professional interest of the teacher, when Superintendent Smythe instituted teachers' meetings, with compulsory attendance where instruction was given in various subjects. Meetings of grade teachers and of principles were also started. III. The third period of educational development begins in 1867, with the election of Andrew J. Rickoff as superintendent. Indeed our system of public schools, of classified grades, of professional training for teachers, of well wrought courses of study, of discipline and pedagogical idealism, was organized into definite form by this able school man, this genuine school-master. He immediately saw the inherent weakness of the schools he was called to administer. There was an utter lack of fixed responsibility and the old problem of classification had been only half solved. At once, therefore, he made the principal of each school a responsible executive, and forthwith reclassified the schools into primary, grammar and high school divisions, each containing four grades called D, C, B and A. Boys and girls were put into the same rooms, a new course of study was formed, and a beginning was made to so shape "the instruction of the child that it may be of the greatest possible benefit to him at whatever time he may leave school." (1) Immediately followed a consolidation of the higher grammar grades and the concentration of scattered schools. Next, the office of supervising principal was created and, given full disciplinary power over pupils and "a general oversight of the methods of instructions employed" and general responsibility over their buildings. For the first time, to belong to a grade meant a definite educational rank. By the end of, the year, 1868-9, the new system of supervision was tested thoroughly enough to warrant its extension and Mr. Rickoff divided the city into four districts and assigned each one to a supervising principal, who was entirely relieved of teaching duties. At the same time the teaching of the highest grade in the grammar school was entrusted to women, and thus women principals were introduced to the schools, a feature for which Cleveland is unique among the larger cities of the land. German was added in 1870 upon the urgent request of the German citizens and upon the advice of a special investigating committee, E. R. Perkins and M. G. Watterson. In 1869 a systematic course in music was adopted and a supervisor of music appointed. In 1872 drawing, which had been dropped for some years, was reintroduced and all of the teachers were given instruction in it. In 1878 the plan of semi-annual examinations and promotions was inaugurated. The annexation of East Cleveland in 1872 brought a new high school known as "East High School." Its old building forms one of the Bolton school group, still in use. The annexation of Newburg necessitated a branch on the south side, called the "Broadway branch." Later pupils were transferred from Newburg to Central high, but the experiment was too costly and in 1877 the "Newburg branch" was reestablished. But the new Central building on Willson made the school accessible and the branch was permanently abolished in 1878-9. The new Central high building 1 - See First Annual Report of Superintendent Rickoff for full course of Study. 530 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND in Willson avenue was dedicated in 1878, and East and Central high schools were consolidated. Mr. Rickoff began the more systematic training of his teachers. In 1868 he conducted a Normal or Institute for a week before the opening of the school year. He urged the raising of salaries which was done from time to time and in 187o a sort of schedule was adopted. The female teachers' pay ranged from four hundred dollars to five hundred and fifty dollars ; principals, seven hundred dollars, eight hundred dollars and one thousand dollars ; the supervising principals received two thousand, three hundred dollars ; the high school teachers, eight hundred dollars to one thousand, eight hundred dollars ; and high school principals, two thousand dollars and two thousand, two hundred and fifty dollars. In 1874 the normal school was organized in the Eagle building. The course occupied only one year and twenty-six graduated in the first class. In 1877 the board resolved to give only a professional training m the schools The principal of the school was empowered to drop any pupil whom he thought would not make a successful teacher. This rule was overturned twenty years later, when a young lady was excluded from the school because she was told by a pre-scient member of the Normal School faculty that she could not develop into a teacher. Her appeal to the courts abolished the rule. In 1880 a rule restricted the admission without examination virtually to graduates of Cleveland high schools, and pupils who taught as substitutes were required to have a certificate ; and it was determined that "the graduates of the Normal school shall not have preference over others in appointments to schools." (2) The Normal school's efficiency was raised but at the cost of considerable popularity, a price that is always exacted when efficiency is to be achieved in any public undertaking. In March, 1876, the unclassified school or school for incorrigibles was started. The Cleveland school exhibits in 1876 at the Centennial exhibition was creditable and received several medals. In 1882 after a brilliant career of fifteen years, Mr. Rickoff was not reappointed. He had served his city and his cause too well. A disgraceful campaign was waged for membership on the board of education and his petty enemies within the schools and outside triumphed, to the lasting shame of the city. In 1881 occurred one of those strange, emotional eruptions that periodically break out against public school authorities. This was by far the most vehement one in our municipal history. Rumors started by some irresponsible gossip monger began to be heard. The schools were unhygienic, something mysterious was the matter, and sinister things were said about some of the teachers and supervisors. Some of the eager newspapers spread the unworthy reports until the stage of hysteria was reached. Then the board of health and the city council were asked by petition to investigate. The board of health reported : "In general we find the sanitary condition of most of the buildings good," but recommend some changes in the heating and ventilating of certain buildings, (*) A committee of the city council, composed of John D. Crehore, W. J. Scott, Charles C. Dewstoe and H. W. Kitchen, made an exhaustive report, which closed with the following words : "In conclusion we say to our petitioners and resolutionists that we have found 2 - Rule seventy-one of board of education, 1880. * - See Annual Reports, 1881-2. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 531 some charges against our public schools true and have suggested needed repairs ; but we do not find it necessary to convert them into hospitals nor necessary to station medical supervisors within them." It was found that "sore heads and malcontents had been busy and resorted to this diabolical means for causing disruption." (9) Mr. Rickoff's was one of the very few minds of the highest order that have devoted themselves to public education in America. He was born in Newhope, New Jersey, August 23, 1824. At the age of six his parents removed to Cincinnati. Circumstances prevented his completing a college course and at the early age of seventeen he began his career as a teacher. He so rigorously disciplined his own mind that he won honorary degrees from several colleges. When he was called to Cleveland in 1867, he had developed one of the most noted private schools in the west, in Cincinnati, where he had also been president of the board of education. The salary, four thousand dollars, Cleveland wisely offered him, was as ample as any then paid by the larger cities, and when our city, through its elected school board, foolishly dispensed of his services, he was immediately offered many places and chose Yonkers, New York, where he remained several years as superintendent and as editor of text books for the Appletons. In 1888 he accepted the responsibility of Felix Adler's noted school for working men. But his body was no longer robust. The accidental death of a very promising young son, followed by the death of his wife, broke his health, and he sought relief in California. He died at Berkeley, March 30, 1899. He is buried in Lake View cemetery. The secret of his great success lay not alone in his capacity as an organizer or in his delightful personal attainments, but in the attitude of his mind, which he declared in these words : "I am a skeptic in education." He avoided the self-satisfied complacency of the bookish pedagogue. B. A. Hinsdale, president of Hiram college, the friend and biographer of James A. Garfield, was chosen to the superintendency in 1882. At the end of his four years' term, Dr. Hinsdale wrote in his final report : "I soon discovered that what the schools most needed was not revolution in external organization and system but more fruitful instruction, a more elastic regimen and a freer spirit. This path ran wide of all sensationalism ; it was quiet and unobtrusive ; the man who should tread it could look for little in the way of noisy popular approval; nevertheless, it would lead to some of the best fruits in education. In this path I have steadfastly sought to tread." In his administration there were no radical changes made and he devoted himself to bettering the quality of instruction by bettering the quality of the teachers. It was his opinion that "the instruction needs to be made more practical, more thorough and fruitful." He began by more earnest teachers' meetings ; next he reorganized the Normal school. Its change of name to Training school was significant of his conception of the school. He abolished the semiannual examinations and corporal punishment. The high schools were also touched with this qualitative of work. There had been a great deal of public criticism of those schools on the ground that they were for the rich, whose sons went to college, supported by the poor, whose sons went to work. Careful investigation showed that the pupils came from all classes of homes and that many of them worked their way through the high schools. In the fall of 1885 Mr. Hinsdale 9 - See Annual Reports, 1881-2. 532 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND altered the system of high school discipline. He placed all the first year class under the charge of teachers to whom they were not only to recite but under whose eye they prepared their lessons. This personal touch he though of great value. Finally he systematized the night school work which had grown greatly in importance as the foreign population of the city multiplied. In 1886 Mr. Hinsdale was elected to the chair of history and pedagogy in the University of Michigan, a position that he filled with great power and influence over the students until his death. L. M. Day, who had been for many years a supervisor in the Cleveland schools, served as superintendent from 1886-1892. He continued the qualitative work in teaching. He said that the two types of teachers that are a great hindrance to the best work in the schools are those "who have had little or no experience or training, and who consequently are narrow and 'bookish' ;" and those whose chief aim seems to be to 'drill' all the work into the little unfortunates committed to their care." (10) By continued personal supervision and by increasing the training work in the Normal school he hoped to help matters. But by far the most important educational work at this time was the inauguration of manual and domestic training. The legislature had authorized the levy of one-fifth mill tax for this purpose and 1886-7 the tax was first collected. In February, 1885, in a barn on Kennard street, near Euclid, some enthusiasts started a carpenter shop for boys. Through its effective work and the enthusiasm of its pupils, it attracted attention and in June, 1885, the Cleveland Manual Traning School Company was incorporated for the "promotion of education and especially the establishment and maintenance of a school of manual training, where pupils shall be taught the use of tools and materials, and instruction shall be given in mechanics, physics, chemistry and mechanical drawing." Judge Samuel Williamson was president, Thomas H. White vice president of this company, and N. M. Anderson, Samuel Mather, L. E. Holden, J. H. McBride, E. P. Williams, William E. Cushing, Alexander E. Brown, Charles W. Bingham, S. H. Curtiss, J. F. Holloway, Ambrose Swasey, Thomas Kilpatrick and S. W. Sessions were directors. Newton M. Anderson, an instructor in physics in Central high school, was chosen principal. A well equipped building was erected on East Prospect street near the Cleveland & Pittsburg Railway crossing, and in February, 1886, it was opened for one of the most significant and far-reaching educational movements in the local history of education. Pupils of the public schools were admitted free to this school, the board of education contributing to its maintenance. A course of study for three years' work was adopted. Domestic science was also first nurtured by private beneficence before the public school authorities could be induced to adopt it. In the autumn of 1884 in 'the basement of Unity church, Prospect street, a few young ladies opened a "kitchen garden" with twenty pupils. The great need for the work was indicated by its wonderful growth. Within two years the "Cleveland Domestic Training Association" was organized and classes held in rooms at 479 Superior street, where children from Rockwell school were permitted to share in the work. Gradually this special work was introduced into the schools. In 1890 a Manual training school was opened on the upper floor of the old West high school and the 10 - Report of Superintendent of Schools, 1888-9. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 533 following year a blacksmith shop was fitted up in the basement. Mr. Day recommended that manual training be made a part of the high school curriculum. In 1890 a two years' business course was added to the high schools. In 1887 the legislature commanded scientific temperance instruction. In 1888 the first compulsory school law was enacted and the first truant officer, George E. Goodrich, appointed. IV. The fourth period begins with the superintendency of the fearless and energetic Andrew S. Draper, who was appointed by the director of schools in 1892 under the new federal plan. Mr. Draper came to Cleveland from New York, where he had been State Commissioner of Education. Changes followed in rapid succession, when this enthusiastic executive arrived. He began by increasing the responsibility of the principals, who he said "were such in name only." 11 He then startled the politicians by announcing that neither political nor personal influence would count in appointing teachers and that "in making appointments in the elementary schools it will be the aim to secure the services of some persons of experience and proved competence who have been notably successful as teachers in other places." Tradition has it that the consistent Superintendent threatened to throw a well known politician out of his office who had gruffly demanded a certain appointment. The supervising force with one exception, were not reappointed, and new supervisors were named. To the teaching force he imparted energy and enthusiasm by organizing the "Principals' Round Table," holding teachers' meetings at regular intervals, organizing pedagogical clubs, developing university extension work for teachers, with courses in literature and other cultural subjects ; by starting a teachers' reading room supplied with pedagogical literature ; beginning a pedagogical department in the public library ; and in encouraging in a multitude of ways the self-improvement and professional development of the teachers. He secured a raise in salary for them, abolished examinations as a test for promotion from grade to grade excepting in the high school, and teachers were allowed to promote any pupil at any time whom they deemed competent to be advanced. Further he issued orders asking the teachers never to touch a child for purposes of punishment. The discipline of the child to be by the softening influence of personality, not by military rigidity. A complete system of reports of the teachers was devised. Nearly a hundred teachers were retired because of incompetency. The course of study was completely. rewritten. The old terminology of A, B. C, D, primary, etc., was abolished and the name of "grade" was substituted Manual training was in 1893 introduced into the elementary schools and kindergarten training was begun in the Normal school. In 1893-4 science work was introduced into the lower grades, "Brief courses in conduct and civics, in physiology and in physical culture" were added. 12 A school for deaf and dumb children was opened in 1893 and the problem of the backward children was earnestly studied. This was a deal of advancement to crowd into two years and its momentum tumbled over many cherished precedents. Mr. Draper resigned in May, 1894, to accept the presidency of the University of Illinois. Louis H. Jones, superintendent of schools in Indianapolis, was called to succeed him. He stated that he would not "make any radical changes." The first 11 - Report of Superintendent of Schools, 1892-3. 12 - "Report of Superintendent of Schools," 1893-4. 534 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND free kindergartens were now opened as a part of the school system. Many cities had preceded Cleveland in this important work. The legislature provided a tax of one-tenth of a mill for supporting them, and on April 20, 1896, the board passed the enabling resolution and in January, 1897, six kindergartens were opened. Each kindergarten was immediately filled to capacity. In 1897 the superintendent reshaped the course of study. It provided for more general reviews and greatly amplified the work of nature study. In 1898 much attention was given to the examination of sight and hearing under the direction of the supervisor of physical training. The unclassified schools were reorganized. In 1895 the Normal schood was moved to the Marion building and the following year the course of study was lengthened to two years and the requirements for admission increased. The high schools had become greatly overcrowded. In July, 1899, contracts were let for the new East high school building, and the following October for Lincoln high. In 1902 Mr. Jones was called to the presidency of the State Normal College at Ypsilanti, Michigan, and E. F. Moulton, who had for many years been a supervisor in the Cleveland schools, was named as superintendent. Mr. Moulton continued the work of Mr. Jones. He served until January 1, 1906, when he was appointed associate superintendent. V. The latest period of educational development may be said to date from the appointment of the Educational Commission. January 1, 1905, the president of the board of education, Samuel P. Orth, suggested that because of the great loss of pupils between the sixth grade and the high school ; because of the stress of earning a livelihood, drives most of these pupils from the schools ; because of comparative overweight of expense and the underweight of attendance in the high schools, it might be wise to appoint a commission of citizens "to look carefully into the curricula of our grade and high schools and determine whether teacher and pupil are overburdened with subsidiary work and to make such recommendations as their finding of facts would warrant." Also to look into the advisability of perfecting our courses in manual training and of establishing a manual training high school, "to which school could resort such of our youth who desire to chose as their calling some branch of the mechanical arts." (13) In February the board empowered the president to appoint such a commission and the following gentlemen were named : Elroy M. Avery, Ph. D. LL. D., author of a well known series of school texts on physical science ; and author of "A History of the United States and its People ;" E. M. Baker, B. A., broker, Secretary Federation of Jewish Charities ; J. H. Caswell, assistant cashier, First National bank ; J. G. W. Cowles, LL. D., real estate, former President Chamber of Commerce ; Charles Gentsch, M. D. ; Frank Hatfield, plate roller, Cleveland Steel Company ; Charles S. Howe, Ph. D., S. C. D., President Case School of Applied Science ; Thomas L. Johnson, attorney ; C. W. McCormick, assistant secretary Cleveland Stone Company ; James McHenry, dry goods merchant ; F. F. Prentiss, President Cleveland Twist Drill Company, and President Chamber of Commerce ; and Charles F. Thwing, LL.D., President Western Reserve University. On March 1st the Commission organized by selecting Mr. Cowles as chairman. R. E. Gammel, secretary of the director of schools, acted as Secretary for the 13 - "Annual Report of the Board of Education," 1905-6. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 535 Commission. A comprehensive program was adopted, comprising eight groups of inquiry, each assigned to a committee. The committees made a very thorough study of their assigned subjects, and the commission held stated meetings at which their findings were discussed in great detail. On July 24, 1906, the last meeting was held and their report transmitted to the board of education. Thus for a year and a half the problems of public education in Cleveland were carefully studied by an able and representative body of citizens, representing not alone the tax payer, but every phase of business and professional life. Their report comprises a volume of one hundred and twenty pages and outlines an educational program based upon the facts observed that would make the public schools not merely an educational machine, but a vitalizing force in our industrial civilization. The report at once became a document of pedagogical value and was sought for by all the larger cities in the country. Many cities have since followed Cleveland's example and have had their schools studied by citizen commissions. The recommendations for changes were numerous, too numerous to be even outlined here. Many of them were on minor matters, but some of them were of the greatest importance. Among them are the following : That high school functions be differentiated and separate manual training and commercial high schools be established ; that the elementary course of study be entirely revised, eliminating many of the decorative appendages ; • that there be more effective supervision in writing ; a reorganization of the drawing department and better correlation of the physical culture work in the elementary schools ; that the night school be reorganized and that the schools be utilized as neighborhood centers ; that a complete system of medical inspection be inaugurated under the supervision of a medical expert ; that radical changes be made in the promotion of teachers, not on the basis of length of service, but upon merit and that the salaries be raised and the inefficient teachers be dropped ; that the normal school be reorganized, the course lengthened to three years, a new and amply equipped building be erected and the faculty strengthened, but that it would be more ideal if Western Reserve University would establish a Teachers College and the city send its pupils thither; that the superintendent be given full executive powers in educational matters ; that the method of supervision be changed and that the principals be given more supervisory authority; that German be discontinued in the lower grades ; that all textbooks be adopted only on the recommendation of the educational department ; and that there should be an extension of cooking and manual training in the seventh and eighth grades. Increased efficiency and the readjustment of the schools to the problems of the breadwinners were the heart of the commission's findings. Many of the minor suggestions were immediately made effective by the board of education, and the larger problems were promptly attacked. On January I, 1906, Stratton D. Brooks, a supervisor in the Boston schools, assumed the duties of the superintendency, but he was soon recalled to Boston, where he had been elected superintendent, and on April 3oth his resignation was accepted. Mr. Moulton, associate superintendent, assumed the duties of the office until May 15, 1906, when William H. Elson, the present superintendent, was 536 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND elected. Mr. Elson came to Cleveland from Grand Rapids, Michigan, where he had been superintendent for a number of years. With characteristic energy and courage the new superintendent set himself the task of solving the greater problems presented by the commission. Of the many results already achieved, five may be taken as indicative of the new forward movement in education. First, the establishment of the Technical High School. Bonds were issued for three hundred and fifty thousand dollars on March 5, 1906. The school was at first called the Manual Training High School. The change of name indicates the purpose of the school. On August 30, 1907, work was begun on the site, corner of Willson and Scovill avenues. The first enrollment was made October 5, 1908, and regular class work begun one week later, with over seven hundred pupils in attendance. The first class graduated in October, 1909. The school is open during the entire year and is open nights in the winter. Pulpils may complete its four years' course in three years, by attending four quarters a year. The school is a pioneer of its type in the United States and visitors from other cities come almost weekly to examine its well arranged building, its adequate equipment, its practical organization and its carefully arranged course of study. This school has created a new high school clientele in the city. 2. The establishment of the Commercial High School. This school was opened in the old West high school building in the fall of 1909. It is one of three or four schools of its kind in the United States. The building was thoroughly remodeled to suit the demands of the new school. The course of study covers four years of work, embracing English, science, history and practical work in business forms, stenography, bookkeeping, etc. It is designed to do for those young people who wish to enter business what the Technical High School does for those who enter the trades or technical professions. 3. The reorganization of the Normal school along the lines suggested by the Educational Commission. This included an entire revision of the course of study and the establishment of lecture courses for all the teachers as well as the abolishing of the teachers institute at the beginning of the year. The work of the institute is now scattered throughout the year.. There is under construction on University Boulevard, a new building for the Normal school, the first one the city has ever erected for that special purpose. 4. An entire revision of the course of study in the elementary schools. A painstaking and exhaustive study of the local conditions and the historical development of the course of study preceded this revision." The object was to simplify the course, not by tearing out, but by coordinating and correllating the subjects and by simplifying the essential work in English, arithmetic, geography and history and by making all the manual training work, the drawing and domestic science, tend toward utility, accuracy and economy. 5. The establishment of a vocational school for boys under the high school age. This school opened in the autumn of 1909, in Brownell school. It is a conservative attempt to solve the problem of the premature bread winner, of 14 - See "Preliminary Report on Course of Study," published by Board of Education, 1909 This has already become an educational document of value and wide demand. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 537 the boy who drops out of the seventh and eighth grade. This is a significant experiment. There is thus discernible in the history of the Cleveland schools a constant purpose that develops strength and momentum through the successive stages of their growth. The primitive period of scattered effort is succeeded by the formative period of attempted standardization. This is followed by the splendid system of Rickoff, who gave definite shape to the organization. The vitalizing or "energizing" of this organization, followed naturally in the work of Hinsdale, Draper and Jones, and in its latest phase both the form of organization and its vital powers are urged to respond to our greatest community needs, to cooperate with the vital processes of civilization that work outside the walls of the schoolhouse. This "increasing purpose" has persisted in spite of the frailties of human nature; of tax limitations, of civic indifference, of unworthy cabals within, and unmerited, heartless criticism from without. And it will continue to persist, for it is written in the nature of things that man shall progress in spite of himself. CHAPTER LVII. PRIVATE SCHOOLS. The first schools of Cleveland were private schools. The poor children of the community were paid their tuition by the village. These early private schools were usually taught by itinerant school masters who traveled from place to place, soliciting pupils at a meager tuition. Occasionally a man or woman of some learning would come to town and establish a school that would endure for several years, perhaps a decade. These instances, however, were rare.    There were multitudes of these private schools established in Cleveland. Unfortunately, their records are lost and only fugitive advertisements and scant newspaper notices remain to tell of their existence. The old Brick Academy on St. Clair street, completed in 1821, was the first considerable school in the town. It was built by private subscription, had no fixed policy, no permanent faculty, and the various rooms were often rented to different pedagogues, who would teach for a year or two and then pass on to another town. Rev. Wm. McLane was one of the first teachers. His tuition charges were moderate: reading, spelling and writing one dollar and seventy-five cents per term of twelve weeks ; grammar and geography, one dollar ; Greek, Latin and mathematics, four dollars. Mr. Cogswell, a Yale graduate, followed, and in 1824, Harvey Rice became principal. In 1826, Rev. Freeman taught a select school for ladies in the upper room. In 1829, Noah D. Haskell and in 1829, J. C. Hall, kept school in the building. In 1833, the papers announced that Miss Ward had a young ladies school in the Academy and she was followed by Miss Frances C. Fuller. It appears that J. H. Black had a classical school in the upper rooms in 1833 and Geo. Brewster, with Henry D. Kendall as assistant, in 1834. 538 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND In April, 1837, a young ladies school was started in the Farmers' block, on Ontario street. In the '40s, E. Hosmer opened the Young Ladies' Institute at 207-9 Superior street. Mr. Hosmer was assisted by his wife, in conducting this important school. He was a well equipped teacher, and his school flourished, until his sudden and untimely death. At this time Miss Fitch opened her famous school for children in a house on Huron street, near Erie. Her announcement in 1853, says that "it is furnished with a set of maps." Miss Fitch had a wonderful influence over little children. Many of Cleveland's prominent men and women, of the older generation, will recall her love and confidence, her gentle and compelling ways and her perennial cheerfulness. As an educator, she was a pioneer in kindergarten work, using its methods long before the name was commonly known. Miss Thayer opened the Female Seminary on Prospect street about 1845. This was a well known school. Professor J. R. Fitzgerald conducted a classical school for young men on St. Clair street, in the '40s. Perhaps as a special inducement to these young men, the announcement was made that "Mrs. Fitzgerald also teaches a school of young ladies in the same building." W. D. Beattie, a man of excellent learning, conducted for a number of years, a school for boys in his home on Euclid street, where the First National Bank building now stands. In 1848 an English and classical school for boys was established on the corner of Euclid and Erie street, where the Schofield building now stands, "near the central part of the city," the announcement says. Henry Childs, a Yale man, conducted the school with unusual success. In 1852 he had sixty-three pupils. Soon after this he relinquished the school and went into business. In 1853 Miss Cleveland conducted a select school for young children at 58 Erie street, and Miss Stoddard a school for children at 9 Ontario street. Other schools of fleeting duration, whose names have been preserved are : 1832, James Angel's school "for the common branches," in Spangler's Tavern ; 1836, Mrs. Howison, a young ladies school on St. Clair street ; 1837, Thomas Sutherland, a native of Edinburgh; held classes in the Farmers' block ; 1837, Miss E. Johnston and Miss Hollison had a select young ladies' school on St. Clair street ; 1840, Miss Butler's school "for infants from three to eight years old" and Miss Pelton's and Miss Armstrong's for advanced classes ; in 1843, Mrs. E. Ludlow's boarding school for girls on Ontario street, three doors from the Stone church; Miss Fuller's school on the Public Square, later called the Cleveland seminary. In 1845, R. Fry conducted a school for boys on the corner of Superior and Seneca streets. Later his school was moved to the Old Academy on St. Clair street. Andrew Freese at this time was principal of the high school, and it was a common inquiry among the youth "are you going to Freese or Fry this year ?" Mrs. Day's school for children was held for many years in a modest frame house that stood on the Public Square where the American Trust building stand. Probably the first formal dancing academy in the town was the one opened in 1833. In 1849 Brown's Commercial Academy was opened in a block corner Su perior and Bank streets, one of the first business schools in Cleveland. To continue the fugitive catalogue down to recent years. In 1868 the Euclid Avenue Branch Seminary, near Erie street, was begun by S. N. Sanford, Miss HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 539 Mary E. Seymour was in charge. It was a branch of the Seminary on Woodland avenue and was opened to accommodate the children and young ladies' who lived in the eastern part of the city. In 1871 the Forest City Seminary was opened by F. M. Abbot, where Plymouth church now stands. In 1872 a day school was opened by Miss Freeman, on Perry street. It survived for many years and was later moved to Prospect street, where it was conducted by Miss Jane H. Freeman and Miss Nellie Freeman. In 1876 the Home Seminary, corner Euclid and Willson avenues, was opened by Chas. Herdsman. It lasted only a few years. The Light Cottage Family Boarding School, conducted by Mrs. Varian on East Madison street, was maintained until about 1885. For a number of years in the '7os and '8os, Mrs. D. R. Whitcomb conducted a ladies seminary on Logan avenue. In 1878, the Cottage Select School was conducted by John Lavelle on Huron street. About this time the Misses S. M. and A. A. Hall, opened a school that lasted until about 1895. In 1878 we find the following schools : Miss F. I. Mosher, 740 Logan avenue; Miss J. E. Sloan, 761 Logan avenue ; Miss Marie F. Swayne, 18 Sibley street and Miss Kate J. Williams, 48 Dare street. In 1880, Miss Mary Berry had a school at 5o Woodbine street. In 1880 Mrs. O. C. Beauchamp and her two sisters, the Misses Blakesley, began a school at 21 Jennings avenue, which flourished for a number of years. Later Miss Eliza Blakesley, who had been a teacher of President McKinley when he was a lad at Niles, Ohio, conducted the school alone. In 1882, Miss W. B. Corwin began a school on Dexter place and 1885, Miss M. Hutchinson and Miss Jane W. Hutchison began a successful school on Superior street. Later it was removed to Huron street. THE CLEVELAND ACADEMY. In 1848 a school for young ladies was opened which has had a potent influence upon many Cleveland lives. The "Herald" on August 28th announces : "On the 16th of October a new female seminary will be organized." The school was opened on the corner of Ontario and Prospect streets, in what had been known as the Prospect House or Temperance Pavilion. It fortunately came under the leadership of Miss L. T. Guilford, who had just arrived in Cleveland, fresh from the zeal of that noble pioneer in woman's education, Mary Lyon, of Mt. Holyoke. Miss Guilford became at once a new educational potency in our city, an inspiration to hundreds of Cleveland's finest women. Some time later the school was moved to the point where Erie, Huron and Prospect streets meet, where the Osborn building now stands. In 1865 a stock company was formed and a brick building erected popularly called the "Brick Academy." Here Miss Guilford conducted her classes until 1881, when Isaac Bridgman took charge of the school. It was discontinued a few years later. A charming account of this school, throwing pleasant sidelights upon the educational theories and practice of that day, is given by Miss Guilford in her "Story of a Cleveland School." For a third of a century, this school was widely known. Miss Guilford was not only a rare teacher, but possessed the genius of friendship and a compelling 540 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND personality. Her ideas upon the education of young ladies were copied by multitudes of schools, in many cities. Her methods were entirely original and in many fine Cleveland households three generations have been guided by her thorough work, and her gentle appeals to the best in human nature. Her Monday morning reviews of the Sunday's sermons, her impromptu ten minute daily exercises, her rigorous training in English, and in mental arithmetic, are remembered by her pupils, and they still hear the ticking of the clock, whose regular voice was heard throughout the rooms, unfailing token of discipline and order. And today, eighty- five years of age, Miss Guilford still retains that remarkable alertness of mind and genuiness of heart, that bind to her the affection and esteem of hundreds of her former pupils, who make constant pilgrimage to the shrine of her friendship. CLEVELAND UNIVERSITY AND CLEVELAND INSTITUTE. Cleveland University was incorporated March 18, 1851, and began with considerable pretension. Seventy-five acres of land were purchased on University Heights and a large three story brick building erected. It contained a library, chapel and recitation rooms. The first trustees were Rev. Asa Mahan, H. V. Willson, Edward Wade, George Willey, Moses Kelley, George Mygatt, John C. Vaughn, Ahaz Merchant, Brewster Pelton, William Case, H. B. Spellman. Rev. Asa Mahan, for some time with Oberlin College, was president of the school. The building was not completed by the University but at least one class seems to have graduated. The records are destroyed and it is difficult to get definite information regarding it. . About 1854 the school was discontinued. In 1856 the property fell into the possession of a company organized by Professor R. F. Humiston, a distinguished teacher. The school then became known as the Cleveland Institute and flourished for a number of years. It was open to both sexes, and was both a boarding school and a day school. Many of the well known men and women of Cleveland graduated from this institution. There were many students from out of town, some from Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan, Illinois and Vermont. In 1867-68 there were one hundred and ninety-six pupils enrolled. CLEVELAND FEMALE SEMINARY. Cleveland Female Seminary was organized about 1854 by Rev. E. M. Sawtell as a boarding and day school for young ladies. Enough subscriptions were secured for purchasing the large grounds on Kinsman street (now Woodland) between Sawtell avenue and Wallingford court, "in one of the most beautiful rural parts of the city." Here a pretentious building was erected, one hundred and sixty feet long, four stories high, with a modest dome. The first board of directors was : John M. Wolsey, W. D. Beattie, Leonard Case, Jr., E. M. Sawtell, H. P. Weddell, H. V. Willson, Stillman Witt, Oliver Perry, James Hoyt. Professor St. Johns was the first principal. A few years later the school was purchased by Messrs. Sanford and Buttles. Mr. Sanford became president of the school and its guiding spirit. It flourished for many years and was the largest private school in Cleveland. It ranked with other large HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 541 "Female Seminaries" then so popular in the country, the forerunners of our first colleges for women, and coeducational schools. It was discontinued about 1877. BROOKS SCHOOL. Brooks Academy had its origin in the desire to honor the memory of Rev. Frederick Brooks, who died while in charge of St. Paul's church. He was a younger brother of Phillips Brooks, and was greatly loved by his parish and all who knew him. A building was erected on Sibley street, by a number of gentlemen, including General J. H. Devereux, J. H. Wade, Samuel Andrews, Dan P. Eells, Colonel Wm. Harris, C. E. Smith and Wm. Edwards. In this building the school was opened in 1875. During its existence it had three principals, John S. White, Mr. Harding and E. H. Thompson. Mr. Thompson remained with the school until its close, in 1891. The courses of study were preparatory to the best colleges. Military drill was a feature of the work. A number of men now prominent in Cleveland's business and professional life, attended Brooks Academy. MISS MITTLEBERGER'S SCHOOL. Miss Augusta Mittleberger, the daughter of William Mittleberger, and niece of James M. Hoyt, both prominent citizens of Cleveland, was graduated from the Cleveland Seminary and taught there for some years. Later she conducted private classes for young women in her own home on Superior street below Erie. These formed the nucleus of a small school, which was removed in 1877 to the Leek block on Prospect street, now called the Croxden. The boarding department was opened at the same time on Sibley street near Case avenue. The growth of the school was rapid. Many pupils were attracted to it from out of the city and it soon had to seek larger quarters. In 1881 it was established in the large property then recently acquired by John D. Rockefeller, on the southeast corner of Case avenue and Prospect street. The number of this house was 020, and immediately became known among the young ladies of the school as "Ten-Twenty," which remained its pet name. The original building was enlarged from time to time to make room for the expanding school, and in 1889 it was remodeled to provide facilities for two hundred and twenty-five pupils. For two years (1887-89) Miss Blakemore (Mrs. Worcester R. Warner) was associated with Miss Mittleberger in the principalship, which later was again vested in Miss Mittleberger alone and so continued until her retirement in 1908. The school then closed its doors. For many years this school was widely known throughout Ohio and adjoining states. Its curriculum included courses from kindergarten to college. In this school were taught a goodly portion of the influential women of the Cleveland of today. The daughters of Presidents Hayes and Garfield were educated in this school, also the daughters of Secretary John Hay, and of many other distinguished men. Miss Mittleberger's influence has been far-reaching in circumference and depth. She was possessed of the superlative gifts of a teacher, had a clear insight into the pedagogical problems of the hour, and in her were found all the rare 542 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND graces of a winning personality ; a union of potencies that explains her unusual success as a teacher, leader and friend. THE HATHAWAY-BROWN SCHOOL. This flourishing school began as the girls' branch of Brooks Academy, soon after Mr. White had opened his school. It was under the competent guidance of Mrs. M. E. Salisbury. At first it was located on Euclid avenue, but later a new building was provided on Prospect street, between Sterling and Hayward. Mrs. Salisbury relinquished the school to Miss Frances Fisher (Mrs. Wood), who in turn, was succeeded by Miss Anne Hathaway Brown (Mrs. F. G. Sigler.) The school was entirely reorganized, moved to Euclid avenue, and was renamed after Miss Brown. Miss Mary E. Spencer became proprietor of the school upon the retirement of Miss Brown. Since 1902 Miss Cora E. Canfield has been the principal. The school had by this time entirely outgrown its quarters. In 1905 a number of public spirited citizens, impelled by the generosity and wise interest of Mrs. Samuel Mather, formed the East End School Association for the purpose of erecting and equipping a modern school for girls. Rev. James Williamson is president of the Association. A beautiful site was secured on Logan avenue (East One Hundredth street), amid the stately trees of the old Streator estate, and here a beautiful and adequate stone building was erected. It is of chaste gothic design, fireproof in construction, and embodies all of the conveniences and safeguards of a thoroughly equipped modern school building. In the rear of the building extensive grounds give ample opportunity for field sports, tennis and basketball. The educational work of the school embraces all grades from kindergarten to academic. The academic department includes the college preparatory course, leading to the school certificate accepted by the College for Women, Smith, Vassar, Wellesley and Wells, also an English scientific course. UNIVERSITY SCHOOL. University school was founded in 1890 as a college preparatory school. From the beginning, however, the school has also emphasized manual training and physical training. Newton M. Anderson, who had been principal of the Manual Training School, and who was responsible for the founding of that department of the high school system of Cleveland, was its first principal, and Chas. Mitchell was associated with him. Much of the manual training idea was incorporated into University School. This idea was set forth in the first issue of the "School Record," October, 189o. "-University School boys can at the same time with their education derived from books, get a good knowledge of all the ordinary pursuits of the day, such as carpentry, wood training, blacksmithing and the handling of machinery. This not only gives them a good idea of what the methods of these departments are, but also teaches them to do with their hands what the brain conceives." The school building was commenced in June, 189o. Until its completion A. A. Pope tendered the use of a ten room dwelling on the corner of Hough and East Madison avenues. Here instruction was given until the opening" of the HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 543 new building in April, 1891. In the first class, 1891, there were seven graduates, four of whom entered Yale university, one Case School of Applied Science, one Adelbert College. Classes have continually increased in number. In 1909 there were twenty-eight graduates, of whom twenty-six entered college. The equipment now includes a substantial main building, with recitation rooms, library, assembly room, shops and laboratories ; a gymnasium with swimming pool and athletic cage ; a dormitory, with accommodations for forty boys ; a laundry and a complete lighting and heating plant. There is also a separate school for boys from eight to twelve years of age. The school is owned by a stock company and controlled by a board of trustees. George Pettee followed Mr. Anderson as principal. Mr. Pettee was followed, in 1908, by Harry A. Peters, the present principal. LAUREL SCHOOL. In 1896 Miss Jennie Warren Prentiss (Mrs. Ward), opened a private school for girls in her home at 95 Streator avenue (East One Hundredth street). The following year a house nearby was fitted up for day school purposes, the boarding pupils remained in the old home. The school was considerably enlarged thereby, and was known as the Wade Park Home School for Girls. In 1899 the school was incorporated as Laurel Institute, and controlled by a board of trustees. In 1900 it had outgrown its limited accommodations and moved to the large house on Euclid avenue, where it still is located. In 1902 Miss Prentiss resigned and Miss Florence Waterman was appointed principal of the school, which place she held until in 1904' she resigned to accept a position in Baltimore. Mrs. Arthur E. Lyman, who had been actively connected with the founding of the Hathaway-Brown School and has been well known in Cleveland for many years as a successful teacher, acquired the school and completely reorganized it and renamed it Laurel School. In 1908 a stock company was organized to acquire the magnificent site on Euclid avenue near Republic street (East One Hundred and First street) which formed a portion of Dr. Streator's splendid estate. The rapid growth of the school demanded new buildings. A substantial fire proof recitation hall was erected in the rear of the yard, the well built barn on the premises was remodeled into a gymnasium, and when the old frame Disciples church on the corner of Euclid and Streator avenues was taken down, the chapel was moved to the rear of the schoolhouse and was remodeled into an assembly hall. Under the efficient and energetic management of Mrs. Lyman, the school has forged rapidly forward. Its revised and progressive course of study has attracted the attention of educators from other cities. The material success of the school is due in large measure to the wise interest taken in its affairs by W. A. Harshaw, president of the corporation which owns the property. CENTRAL INSTITUTE. This institution is unique among the schools of the city, and of the country. "It began in 1889 as a business college. In 1895 it was incorporated and placed under the present management. In the intervening thirteen years it has developed 544 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND along entirely new lines. From two teachers, two departments, business and shorthand, with seventy-five pupils, the Institute has grown to its present size; six departments, English, business, shorthand, drafting, engineering and college preparatory, with fifteen teachers and an attendance of four hundred pupils. "During these thirteen years, the company has purchased the property the school occupies, and has three times enlarged the building and is constantly increasing the equipment." "The especial features of the Central Institute are, a fifty-week year instead of the usual thirty-eight week year, an attitude toward athletics and social activities which resists their encroachments upon studies, less importance placed upon certain purely cultural studies than is commonly placed upon such studies by public schools, and lastly, the atmosphere of earnestness imparted to the entire mass of pupils because of the fact that Central Institute pupils are older than those of public schools and because the Institute offers the brightest pupils an opportunity to advance according to their ability." As a result of these opportunities scores of Cleveland boys who are compelled to work for a living have been able to work their way into college and into many useful positions in our community. In 1905, Case School of Applied Science offered a prize of three hundred dollars to the graduate of any private preparatory school passing the best entrance examination. Four successive years, earnest young men from this school have taken this prize. Its graduates are found in the leading colleges of the country. The school owes its success to James G. Hobbie, who has been the principal since its inception, and the leader in its beneficent work. THE PARKER SCHOOL. "The Froebel School was established in 1896 by parents, who desired that the individuality of each pupil should be more carefully recognized and that less formal methods should be employed in the education, of the children than in the larger schools. It was organized for the public benefit, with no other profit in view than the educational advantages to be derived from the school by its patrons. "It has been deemed advisable to change the name 'The Froebel school,' a name suggesting that it was organized especially for children of the kindergarten age, to one that should convey more clearly the general idea of the means employed in the education of the children. The establishment of the work was a direct 'outgrowth of the efforts of Francis W. Parker in behalf of the children of the United States. From the time the school was incorporated until his death, he gave his heartiest interest and support to all that the undertaking here suggested. The school will therefore henceforth be known as The Parker School, for the individual training of boys and girls." Mrs. Chas. C. Arms was the first president of the school and instrumental in developing it. The present officers are : President, Mrs. Arthur A. Stearns ; vice president, Mrs. W. H. Cleminshaw ; second vice president, Mrs. Hermon A. Kelley ; secretary, Mrs. A. V. Cannon ; treasurer and business manager, Mrs. Albert Whittlesey. W. P. Beeching is principal. The school is located at 2052 East Ninety- sixth street. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 545 CHAPTER LVIII. THE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY. By Professor E. J. Benton, Professor of History, Western Reserve University. INTRODUCTION. The Western Reserve University comprises two undergraduate colleges, Adelbert college and the Cleveland College for Women, and the Graduate school, the Law school and the Library school, all of which are located on Euclid avenue near the entrance to Wade park, and the Medical school, the Dental school and the school of Pharmacy which are situated near the heart of the city. Its origin and development are characteristic of the growth of higher education throughout the United States. There was to begin with the small country college, with a religious purpose at the foundation, a small group of professors, self-sacrificing idealists, a meager student body, averaging five or six to each instructor, an intimate life almost monastic in its seclusion from the secular life of the time, permeated with a reverence for the amenities and privileges of scholarship, and with a touch of aristocracy expressed in the prevailing feeling of exclusiveness. FOUNDATION AT HUDSON. The Presbyterian and Congregational ministers and their people in the Connecticut or Western Reserve in Ohio, pioneers in a new region and true sons of New England, became concerned "for the education of indigent pious young men for the ministry." (Records of the Trustees, p. 4.) Some of their number under the name of the Erie Literary society founded an academy at Burton in 1805, . but the institution met with a series of mishaps largely incident to all pioneer enterprises and to the effect of the War of 1812 in the northwest. The Presbyteries of Grand River, Portage and Huron, which included practically the whole of the Western Reserve territory, attempted for a time to cooperate with the Erie Literary society, but they finally became convinced that Burton was an unhealthy unpromising location incapable of becoming the seat of an institution of their high ideals and withdrew their support. (1) Commissioners appointed in 1824 representing the Presbyteries of the Western Reserve then set to work to locate a new literary and theological institution under instructions "to take into view all circumstances of situation, moral character, facility of communication, donations, health, etc." They seem to have considered the merits of Burton, Aurora, Euclid, Cleveland and Hudson for the site of the proposed school, From reasons that appeared sufficient Hudson was chosen. Cleveland was as yet an insignificant and unhealthy river town. Hudson had the advantage in situation in all points of main concern for a country college, and it was a day nearer Pittsburg and the east by the main thoroughfare of the period. It presented a stronger claim in subscribing seven thousand, one hundred and fifty dollars to secure the college, besides one hundred and sixty acres of 1 - Records of the Trustees, p. 3; Cutler, "A History of Western Reserve College," p. 13.  546 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND land for a site. A charter was promptly secured, February 7, 1826, the cornerstone of the first building laid April 26th, and the first students, three in number, began receiving instruction in temporary quarters at Talmadge in December, 1826, under a tutor pro tempore. The college opened at Hudson in the autumn of 1827. A preparatory department, indispensable at that time before the day of adequate public secondary schools, was organized at the same time, and a theological department was established in 1830. (2) A DENOMINATIONAL COLLEGE. The college was established by the Presbyterian and Congregational churches. It looked to them for the subscriptions, gifts and bequests which alone made a continued existence possible. The fees of the students for tuition amounted to only ten dollars per term from each, and the total amount furnished less than one-tenth the funds necessary to carry the college through the first five years. (3) The efforts made to gain state aid were futile. Church societies and especially the society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education at the west with headquarters at New York, soliciting gifts from the churches of the east to use in maintaining the church colleges in pioneer regions, were indefatigable in their aid. Several professorships in the theological department were endowed and some general permanent endowment provided, mainly by such gifts. A college church distinct from the village church, and Presbyterian in its denominational relations, was formed in 1831 and maintained until the removal to Cleveland. The president was the pastor, and the instructors were invariably members. The trustees, president and professors united in efforts to bring the students therein. All students were required to attend the regular Sunday services at the college church. The professors were required to subscribe to a confession of faith as a religious test. (4) The religious purposes underlying college education made itself felt in the student life of the college. The students of the freshman class and other students petitioned the trustees in 1833 that "the Bible and other Christian authors may be studied as classics instead of heathen authors." (5) With all the religious and denominational tendencies the college at Hudson never became in a legal sense the property of a particular denomination. No denominational restrictions entered into its charter, presumably because the founders did not think these necessary. The later sectarian colleges were held in loyalty to the denomination by rigid charter conditions quite in contrast with the laxness of the earlier relations of church and college. The trustees of Western Reserve college gradually looked to a wider support than the denominational one of the foundation. Internal dissensions and financial disasters combined to loosen the denominational bonds. The loss of endowments for the theological chairs and for strictly religious uses of the college released it from legal obligations. The theological department with its endow- 2 - Records of the Trustees, pp. 11 ff. 3 - Records of the Trustees, p. 14 ; Haring, "Bulletins of Western Reserve University," Vol. 9, No. 3, p. 17. 4 - Records of the Trustees, p. 90 and p. 577. 5 - Record of the Trustees, p. 50. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 547 ments frittered away and its student body dispersed among other rival schools near by. It was abandoned in 1852. (6) A one remaining endowment, that of the Oviatt professorship of sacred rhetoric, was, with the consent of the donor, transferred to the collegiate department under the name of the Oviatt Professorship of Rhetoric. The suppression of the theological department cut the main cord in the Presbyterian and Congregational attachments. The establishment of more zealous denominational agencies at Oberlin and Wooster was an event of great significance. The mismanagement of finances at Western Reserve accomplished more to alienate the old supporters and force the trustees to turn to a larger constituency. The transformation into a strictly undenominational college took place so gradually, so unconsciously, that it has become difficult to trace the steps. As late as June 24, 1879, the trustees invited the Cleveland Presbyterian and the Puritan Conference of Congregational churches each to appoint a committee to attend the examinations of the college classes. The removal to Cleveland terminated the last vestiges of denominational attachment. FINANCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE HUDSON PERIOD. For more than half a century the little college struggled on in Hudson against all the odds that have beset pioneer colleges. Western Reserve college was a second Yale in all its interests and aspirations. The people of the Western Reserve were largely Connecticut people. It was only natural that they should strive to realize the Connecticut college ideals. Yale had a small endowment. Within two years after laying the first corner stone, steps were taken to secure an endowment for the Western Reserve college, but little progress was possible because the resources were constantly drained to meet a constantly accumulating debt. The first instructors were employed with an agreement to be paid "one-half in cash, one-half in stores, with a promise they should not seriously feel the embarrassments of our embarrassments." (7) The maximum salary of a professor was at the time about seven hundred dollars, but most of them received far less, often contributing themselves from their own incomes to the necessities of the college. College support came in the "store pay" of the times. Donations and the payments of subscriptions and the tuition fees were paid in land, in stone, in lumber, in labor, in books, in furniture, in corn, in hay, oxen and horses. Money was scarce and very little came directly into the college treasury. Mr. Coe, the soliciting agent, announced in one of his reports a total in subscriptions of twenty-three thousand, one hundred and forty dollars, and seventy-five cents, but not enough of this was in cash to meet his expenses of two hundred dollars. (8) The miscellaneous receipts were naturally hard to convert into the immediate needs of a young college. Such economic conditions pressed the college into business for itself. Donations in land brought on "College Farms." The produce of these was sold to the college boarding house, to the professors, and sometimes to the general consumer. Farm products paid salaries and paid 6 - Cutler, "A History of Western Reserve College," p. 51. 7 - Haring, "Western Reserve Bulletin," Vol. 9, No. 3, p. 97. 8 - Cutler, "History of Western Reserve College," p. 18; Haring, "Western Reserve University Bulletin," pp. 5, ff. 548 - HISTORY OF CLEVELAND other obligations. The students found employment on the farms, enabling the sons of the poorest to rise a rung in the social scale. The "company store" served the same end. It took in the gifts and payments in kind and disposed of them at a profit,, or it bought at wholesale such articles as muslins, linens, and silks, buttons, needles, and brooms, medicines, buggies and farm implements to sell to the college community or to allow professors in lieu of cash. Inexperience and mismanagement more than balanced the profits made in the retail processes, but it was fortunate for the faculty that the college could make even "barter payments." A page from the treasurer's journal for April, 1844, is ample commentary on an interesting feature of other day college finances : "Rec'd of August Adams, on subscription, 20 bu. potatoes, and sold to Prof. Day 4 1/2 bu., to Prof. St. John 4 1/2 bu., and to Prt. Pierce, 2 bu., and planted 9 bu. @ 25c." "Rec'd of E. S. Warden $35.32 in lumber, to be cry. to his account." "I purchased 2 calico dresses, for which paid $3.5o, and gave them to Mrs. Ladd and Mrs. Williams for their services in getting up the Com. dinner, thinking it right so to do." "Rec'd of Henry Bugby a heifer @ $8.00, $6.59 to pay the bal. of interest due on his land contract, for which I have to-day given him a deed." "Rec'd a yoke of 3-yr. old steers @ $25.00 to apply on contract of S. T. Griffin ; also of Austin Ritter 2 heifers for $11.00; also of S. Stone a cow @ $12.00 and a heifer @ $6.00, and allowed him $2.00 for driving cattle." Appeals like the following taken from the Ohio Observer for February, 1844, recalls an era of heroic self-sacrifice in the history of higher education in America : "Only a few contributions have as yet been made. The professors received in money comparatively nothing from the treasury. Some of them have been living on their OWn resources which are now exhausted. They are enduring privations or making great sacrifices to sustain the institution. But it cannot be expected they will do so long unless deliverance comes from some quarter." A former treasurer of the university in a very interesting review of the finances of the early college, relates the experiences of President Pierce, who was president from 1834 to 1855. "His personal account for each of these twenty-one years shows an average of two hundred debit entries. In payment of a salary of nine hundred dollars per year, he is charged with all the items of produce and stores, already referred to, and in addition, is charged with the term bills of dozens of students, whom he in his own poverity, was moved to assist. He is charged with books and other articles which had been delivered to him in payment of donations, but which the college was unwilling to accept. On rare occasions he received payment in money. When he resigned his office, an adjustment of his account showed him to be the college's creditor for thousands of dollars, in addition to the three thousand dollars which was at that time voted to him, in recognition of his great services as financial agent. In part payment of this large balance, he finally accepted a deed for the `Oviatt Farm.' " (10) 10 - "Western Reserve University Bulletin," Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 16-47. HISTORY OF CLEVELAND - 549 WORKSHOPS. The college attempted to meet the primitive economic conditions of a new region by establishing in 1828 workshops where the students could labor at productive employment to support themselves in part at least. (9) It is evident from the records that while the element of self-support was foremost, there was at the same time some thought for "manual dexterity" and considerable emphasis placed on providing a "rational exercise," perhaps to commend it more readily to students and parents alike. Cabinet, cooperage, wagon and blacksmith shops, were established and maintained at a large cost for about twenty-five years. The experiment was an utter failure. The output of half willing students, withdrawn from their primary interests, and driven to a distasteful labor by college rules, laboring intermittently, unskilled and with nothing of the modern technical school's aims for the future economic value of the student's labor, such an output was miserably poor and unsalable. PROSPECTS AT HUDSON. During the Hudson period the endowment, student body and faculty had grown very slowly. The college possessed in 188o a productive endowment of a little more than two hundred thousand dollars ; college buildings and equipment worth under forty thousand dollars ; and student body averaging sixty- five for the decade from 1870 to 1880. Such statistics measure but little in telling a story of prospects. Absence of regular, stable and adequate channels of support and the proximity of numerous other colleges foretold to the thoughtful stagnation and possible retrogression. This outlook came at a time when economic conditions were changing rapidly and when the flood had set cityward. The conviction had taken a firm hold that the city possessed some advantages over the country as a seat for a live and growing college thoroughly equipped to meet modern conditions. Cleveland near by was developing rapidly into a great industrial center. Its citizens had begun to aspire to possess a great university and a Polytechnical school. Two facts were self-evident : That Cleveland would soon possess its university; and that Western Reserve, already falling between the state supported institutions of higher education and the denomination supported college, was facing a crisis in its history. REMOVAL TO CLEVELAND Dr. Hiram C. Haydn, long time trustee, and later president, professor of biblical literature and honored vice president at present, a service which has lasted through many years, and speaks for itself, became himself convinced of the advantage of building anew in Cleveland on the historic foundation at Hudson, and advocated such a change before his associates. His paper on the future interests of the college presented to them on June 25, 1878, led to definite measures toward a removal. (11) 11 - Records of the Trustees, p. 459 P. 432 ; Haydn, 9 - "From Hudson to Cleveland," p. 46. 9 Records of the Trustees, p. 18.