950 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS 1841-2. Business depression. Schools overcrowded. Male teachers' salaries cut from $40 a month to $32.50, female teachers' from $5 a week to $4.40. 1843. Colored people ask separate school for their children. City refuses, continuing to admit children to all public schools regardless of race. System for selecting teachers introduced, providing "thorough examination in spelling and the rudiments of the English language as contained in Webster's spelling book." Also "they must be good readers both in prose and poetry, evince a thorough knowledge both in the rules and practice of arithmetic, and furnish satisfactory evidence of good moral character." 1844. Charles Bradburn asks school council to appropriate money for a high school, unsuccessfully. 1845. Prosperity again. Teachers' pay restored to for-mer level. Children in the city, from four to eighteen years, 2,500; 1,300 of them in public schools, 400 in private schools, 800 not attending any school. 1846. Cleveland's first public high school opened for boys in basement of Universalist Church on Prospect Street west of Erie. Soon crowded. Hinged seats adopted, saving space and enabling pupils to move about more easily. 1847. Girls admitted to high school. Controversy be-tween city and school officials regarding authority. Legislation at Columbus requiring the city to maintain the high school and authorizing a special tax levy for land and school buildings. H. B. Payne, later United States senator, demands discontinuance of high school till every child has a thorough common school education. 1848. A writer in the Herald complains" of "great lack of attention to spelling, punctuation, use of capital letters and penmanship in the schools." 1849. Uniform school rules, texts and study courses attempted without success. 1850. Visitor writes to the Herald: "Cleveland school buildings are the best west of the Hudson River." 1851. More schools built, more night school classes, THE CITY'S LIFE - 951 school libraries started, American history taught, serious in-struction given in music and drawing, salaries of high school teachers raised to $550 a year, and principal $650. 1852. Brownell School opened on East Fourteenth Street. Temporary frame building for high school erected on Euclid near East Ninth. 1853. Board of Education substituted for Board of School Managers, with secretary of Board as business manager and a superintendent in charge of instruction. Female teachers' salaries raised to $300 a year for first-class teachers. Samuel H. Mather first secretary, Andrew Freese first superintendent, also continuing' as high school principal. 1854. Ohio City joins Cleveland City, adding 2,438 to school population and 800 to public school attendance. Superintendent Freese starts grading and classifying schools and pupils, making work and textbooks uniform. 1855. First Central high school class graduated : George W. Durgin, Jr., Henry W. Hamlen, John G. Prince, Timothy H. Rearden, Albert H. Spencer, Emeline W. Curtis, Helen E. Farrand, Julia E. O'Brien, Laura C. Spelman (later Mrs. John D. Rockefeller), Lucy M. Spelman, her sister. Per-manent high school costing $20,000 built on site of temporary building on Euclid Avenue, and occupied the following year, named Central High. West High School established as branch of Central High (the law allowing one high school) in old school building on Kentucky Street. 1856. Industrial school established for "incorrigibles." Latin and Greek introduced in high schools. 1857. School enrollment 6,250, number of teachers 80, total expenditure $48,839. 1859. New state law separates schools from municipal government, taking election of members of Board of Education from City Council and giving it to the voters. High school course extended from three to four years. Study of German introduced in high school. Four different courses provided. 1860. Children of school age, 13,309; in public schools, 6,100; in Catholic schools, 2,000; in private Protestant 952 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS schools, 200; in private German schools, 250; in orphan asylum, 50; not attending school, 4,709. 1861. Andrew Freese succeeded by Luther M. Oviatt as superintendent. 1863-5. Oviatt succeeded by Rev. Anson Smythe. Studies simplified and schools graded more strictly. Ten new primary and secondary schools opened, mostly tributary schools for which there are no school buildings. Flood of children overwhelming the school system. 1867. Andrew J. Rickoff becomes superintendent. Better organization and instruction. The principal of every grammar school is made principal also of its tributary schools. Schools classified definitely as primary, grammar and high. Separate divisions for girls abolished. Courses of study re-vised and teachers instructed in the art of teaching. 1868. Legislature gives Board of Education more complete control of schools, with power to levy taxes. 1869. Census shows 27,524 children of school age in the city, with 11,151 in public schools. 1870. Teaching. of German language introduced in grammar and primary grades, soon extending to all the schools in the city. Policy adopted of building small frame houses, each accommodating- 240 pupils, as temporary "relief schools." 1872. East Cleveland annexed, bringing in schools east of Willson Avenue (East Fifty-fifth) and north of Quincy, including East High School. 1874. Large part of Newburgh Township annexed. Normal School established. 1876. Unclassified school, or school for incorrigibles, started. 1878. New Central High School built on East Fifty-fifth Street, and old Central High and East High consoli-dated there. Upper stories of old Central High building used for Public Library, lower story as headquarters for Board of Education. 1881-2. Superintendent Rickoff, able and autocratic, who substituted women principals for men on the ground that THE CITY'S LIFE-955 "a thousand-dollar-a-year woman is worth more to the schools than a thousand-dollar man," succeeded by Burke A. Hinsdale, president of Hiram College. Teachers are allowed more initiative. Semi-annual examinations and corporal punishment abolished. Thirty schools conducted in rented rooms, of which eleven are in churches, nine in saloon buildings, five in dwelling houses, two in store rooms and one in a society hall. 1883. Special school tax authorized for building. In this and following year fourteen new buildings erected at cost of $645,000, accommodating 8,250 pupils. 1885. Carpenter shop for boys started by private citizens in barn on Kennard Street. Later in year Cleveland Manual Training School Company incorporated for "promotion of education, and especially the establishment and maintenance of a school of manual training, where pupils shall be taught the use of tools and materials, and instructions shall be given in mechanics, physics, chemistry and mechanical drawing." Various leading citizens are directors. 1886. Building for this private Manual Training School opened on East Prospect Street (Carnegie Avenue) Public school pupils admitted free. Board of Education contributes to its maintenance. Three years' course of study. Meanwhile "Cleveland Domestic Training Association" organized for girls in rooms at 479 Superior Street, and chil-dren from Rockwell School allowed to attend. Superintendent Hinsdale retires, patiently explaining to his critics : "A school system is not a framework that can be torn down and put together again according to another model, or even a machine that can be pulled to pieces and built over again ; it is rather an organism that has been produced by growth or evolution, more or less alive, more or less fruitful, and that must be handled in harmony with its own nature and laws. School systems are not made, but grow." That schools are to be improved "through the minds of the teachers, their knowledge, views, ideals and spirit, and not by the use of mechanical methods." That school innovations should, as Bacon said, "follow. the example of 956 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS Time itself, which indeed innovateth greatly, but quietly, and by degrees scarce to be perceived." He is followed by Lewis W. Day. 1887. A Cooking School opens as a branch of the Manual Training School. The legislature recommends scientific temperance instruction. 1888. First compulsory attendance law is enacted, and first truant officer appointed, George E. Goodrich. 1889. Superintendent Day says the chief hindrance to successful school work is the employment of teachers "who are narrow and bookish, and whose chief aim seems to be to drill the work into the unfortunates committed to their care. 1890. Manual Training' School opened on upper floor of old West High School, followed by blacksmith shop in the basement. Superintendent Day recommends that manual training be made part of the high school curriculum. Two years business course added to the high schools. 1892. Superintendent Day retires. A Federal Plan is established by the legislature for the Cleveland school government, with a Board of Education consisting' of a school director with large powers, chosen directly by the voters, and seven members elected at large. H. Q. Sargent is elected director, and he appoints Andrew S. Draper as superintendent. The latter proceeds to decentralize the school system, giving' more authority to principals, establishing a Principals' Round Table for general discussion, and providing regular and frequent meetings to "energize" the teachers, who them-selves organize pedagogical clubs. Nearly 100 discharged for incompetence. Others have their salaries raised. Examinations and corporal punishment abolished again. Promotion allowed at any time. Columbus Day celebrated with a great school parade. 1893. Manual training introduced in elementary schools, science work in the lower grades, with brief courses in conduct, civics, physiology and physical culture. School for deaf and dumb opened. Problem of backward pupils studied. 1894. Superintendent Draper resigns to accept a col- THE CITY'S LIFE - 957 lege presidency. Louis H. Jones brought from Indianapolis to take his place. Announces that he will make no radical changes. School system is enlarged again by annexation of Brooklyn and West Cleveland. The schools are swamped with children, as usual. 1895. Frank S. Barnum appointed school architect. Modern type of school construction begins, with fireproof buildings, flat roofs, electric lighting, no waste space. Adjustible seats are introduced. 1896-7. Free kindergartens are established as part of the school system, and filled to capacity. Nature study ex-tended. A woman, Mrs. Elroy M. Avery, elected a member of the school council, the first woman to hold an elective office in Ohio. 1898. Another woman on the School Council, Mrs. Benjamin F. Taylor. 1899. Site of the old Central High Building on Euclid Avenue, occupied by the Public Library and Board of Education, sold for $310,000. Contracts let for East and Lincoln High School buildings. 1900. Sites suggested for ten more school buildings. Efforts made to strengthen the department of physical education and hygiene. Census shows 106,453 children of school age, With 58,105 registered in public schools, and 1,250 teachers, 164 of them teaching German. School buildings worth $4,619,000, bonded indebtedness of school system $1,195,000. 1902. Superintendent Jones, after much controversy over Normal School methods and "frills and feathers," leaves to take presidency of a Michigan Normal school. Edwin F. Moulton, assistant superintendent, succeeds to the office. 1904. Division of medical inspection organized. Federal Plan abolished. 1905. Samuel P. Orth, president of the Board of Education, appoints an educational commission of leading citizens representing the city's business and professional life, to investigate all school departments : Elroy M. Avery, E. M. Baker, J. H. Caswell, J. G. W. Cowles, Charles Gentsch, 958 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS Frank Hatfield, President Charles S. Howe of Case School, Thomas L. Johnson, C. W. McCormick, James McHenry, F. F. Prentiss and President Charles F. Thwing of Western Reserve University. 1906. The commission reports, recommending more differentiation of high school functions, simplification of elementary courses, reorganization of night schools and their use as neighborhood centers, better medical inspection under an expert, promotion of teachers on merit, with better salaries, establishment of a teachers college by Western Reserve University to replace the Normal School, executive powers for the school superintendent, more supervision by principals, more authoritative choice of textbooks, extension of cooking and manual training; in general, more practical efficiency and more regard for bread-and-butter education. The teachers' pension fund is established. Superintendent Moulton gives way to Stratton D. Brooks of Boston, who resigns after ten weeks. The next superintendent is William H. Elson from Grand Rapids, Michigan. 1907-10. Elson introduces quarterly promotions and other progressive policies. Many of the educational commission's recommendations are carried out. Elementary courses of study are revised. A technical High School is opened with 700 pupils. A Commercial High School is established. The Normal School is reorganized. An Elementary Industrial School is created for boys under the high school age in Brownell School. School dispensaries appear. 1912. Superintendent Elson retires. His place is filled by J. M. H. Frederick. Another Technical School, West High, is opened. 1915. Junior high schools provided for boys and girls of the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, leaving only three senior high school grades. 1917. Superintendent Frederick is succeeded by Frank E. Spaulding of Minneapolis, at the unprecedented salary of $12,000 a year, with assurance of ample authority. A year later Elroy M. Avery testifies, in his history of Cleveland, that Mr. Spaulding has treated teachers and public with THE CITY'S LIFE - 959 courteous consideration and gained their confidence and support, that the almost chronic wrangling in the Board of Education has ended, that there has come an "era of good will." 1918. Superintendent Spaulding goes to France under leave of absence, as chairman of a commission in charge of the education of American soldiers in preparation for their return to civil life at the close of the war. His work was carried on by Robinson G. Jones as deputy and acting superintendent. The Longwood High School of Commerce is opened. In this year there are in operation 12 high schools, 12 junior high schools, 103 elementary schools, and two special schools, the School for the Deaf and School for Crippled Children; also an extensive kindergarten system in connection with the elementary schools, and special classes in many of the schools for manual training, domestic science, classes for the blind, for defectives, for backward children and other groups. The enrollment in the fall of 1918 is 76,613 for elementary schools, 8,002 for kindergartens, 1,513 for special elementary classes, 584 for special schools, 10,335 for junior high schools, 9,619 for senior high schools and 196 for normal schools: a total of 106,862. The number of employees in the educational department of the public school system is 3,198. The value of property owned is estimated at $17,000,000. Modern City Schools Robinson G. Jones, who became superintendent in 1919, rapidly forwarded the work of modernization. He reported at the close of the school year in June, 1926, a total of 139,168 pupils, with a teaching and administrative staff of 4,765 persons and educational activities carried on in 148 school plants. New buildings thus far had never kept pace with the increase of pupils. In spite of the addition of 801 rooms since 1918, there was still a shortage of housing facilities. This was a result partly of the city growth and partly of the increasing tendency of boys and girls to remain in school through the higher grades. But a change was imminent. 960 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS The gain in pupils for the year 1923-4 had been 4,437; for 1924-5, 2,767; for 1925-6, only 490. The superintendent announced : " The estimate of school enrollment for the coming year of 1926-7 indicates an increase of but a few hundred pupils. The automobile, increased prosperity, contemplated rapid transit lines and the building of homes in the suburbs, have caused the removal of thousands of families to the suburban residence areas. Parochial schools are enrolling more pupils than ever before. It is believed that with the immediate and urgent need for school building once met, a demand for build-ings such as has existed during the last ten years will no longer persist." This forecast was fairly well upheld by the enrollment of ensuing years. The increase was slightly greater at first, rising from the minimum of 490 in 1925-6 to 1,275 in 1926-7, 1,306 in 1927-8, 1,226 in 1928-9, and 1,714 in 1929-30, then sharply falling again to a mere 860 in the year 1930-31. This gain is so small in a total of more than 145,000 pupils that the growth curve may also be said to have flattened out. Thus there is a good prospect of Cleveland, in normal times, really catching up with her public school requirements. With the suburbs, composing the fringe of Greater Cleveland, it is another story. They must face, for the most part increas-ingly, the difficulties that the mother city has struggled with for a century. The last few years have been in many ways the most fruitful period in the long and honorable record of the Cleveland public schools. It is impossible to deal with them as they deserve, in an omnibus chapter which is obliged to cover so many phases of the complex system of education now operating in this community. Starting only a few years ago, the schools have given more and more attention to adult education. In the year of 1926-7 there were forty-four centers offering evening instruc-tion to grown-ups in English, arithmetic, geography, history and civil government, with three elementary schools organ-ized to prepare adult students for secondary education, seven THE CITY'S LIFE - 961 secondary schools offering short unit courses in academic, commercial, industrial and technical subjects, and one secondary school offering a complete college preparatory course. There were more than 10,000 men and women, mostly for-eign-born, taking elementary evening work and learning the English language. In the same year the vocational schools for the first time were properly housed and equipped. School doctors examined 48,734 boys and girls for defects of teeth, tonsils, adenoids, vision, hearing, anemia, nutrition, etc., while nurses administered 41,283 dressings, 30,025 other treatments, and gave 21,578 health talks. Regarding classes for mental defectives, the superintendent reported : "The mental defective is not wholly a social liability, by any means. He is usually happy and carefree by disposition. He may be led astray by evil companions and bad environment, but just as readily will he consent to be led into paths of usefulness. Properly anchored in society, and properly directed, the mental defective becomes a good and faithful worker at routine tasks, is able to support him-self, keeps the peace and is not a bad neighbor." In 1775 the American elementary school curriculum comprised reading, spelling, writing., arithmetic and the Bible. By 1850 it had added history, language and grammar, conduct, bookkeeping, geography and object lessons. By 1900 it was extended to physiology and hygiene, literature, civics, play, nature study, music, physical training, sewing and manual training. At present the subjects studied would fill a volume. The High Schools The object of the city's academic high schools, says Super-intendent Jones, are these : 1. To train young. people to be healthy. 2. To train them in social cooperation. 3. To train them to do something that the world wants done. 4. To train them to make good use of their leisure time. Cleveland is well ahead of the rest of the country in its reorganization of the public high schools into junior and senior units. 962 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS High schools established before 1902 were all of one type, aiming at college preparation. Most of the high schools have been established since that time and, in harmony with the requirements of the new century, have been of highly specialized type. Education specializes almost as much as industry. There are fifteen schools in the city properly called high schools. CENTRAL, the first of these, on East Fifty-fifth Street, started in 1846 and has a proud record. It was the first free high school to be established west of the Alleghanies and has always preserved its academic character. WEST HIGH, originally a branch of Central High, established in 1855, after several migrations, is on Franklin Avenue and West Sixty-ninth Street. It long served the West Side alone, as Central did the East Side, and is known almost as well. GLENVILLE HIGH, originating as a village high school, entered the city in 1905 and, with additions to the building to accommodate the population growth, became a large school. It stands on Parkwood Drive. It does a great deal of college preparatory work, and is known particularly for its interest in music. SOUTH HIGH was built in 1894 to accommodate the South End, formerly Newburgh Village. Its largest group of stu-dents are of Polish descent, with many Bohemians, Slovenians and Lithuanians. It has a strong commercial department. EAST HIGH, on East Eighty-second Street, in another offshoot of Central High. Though its original American born population has gone farther east, and today it is only half native, it has preserved its academic character. It encourages its students to go to college and does much to help them. LINCOLN HIGH was started in 1900 as a relief school for West High, in the southwestern part of the city. Its present building is at Scranton Road and Castle Avenue. Its first principal was James W. McLean, well remembered as an educator. It became a six-room school in 1919, and by 1929 had become one of the largest schools in the city, having 3,600 THE CITY'S LIFE - 963 pupils and 126 teachers. It is one of the "cosmopolitan" schools, offering many technical and commercial subjects along with its academic training. EAST TECHNICAL was the first "vocational" high school built. Planned as a "manual training high school," in 1906, it was soon dignified by the better name of "technical high school." Fears that it would rob the other schools were proved groundless when, on its opening, only 123 of its 700 students transferred from elsewhere. It soon demonstrated its value, and reached its maximum attendance, 3,500, in 1921. Along with its instruction in many mechanical trades and practical arts and sciences, it does not neglect the liberal arts. Its graduates have regularly distinguished themselves at Case School and Western Reserve University. WEST COMMERCE HIGH SCHOOL, formerly an independent unit, became in 1929 a part of West Technical High School. It came into existence in 1906 to fill the growing need of commercial training along modern business lines. The demand came especially from business men, many of whom co-operated in planning the study courses. A large majority of the puipls have been girls, About one-third of them have entered directly from Catholic parochial schools. WEST TECHNICAL, dating from 1910, has come into new importance since relinquishing its junior high students and absorbing West Commerce School in 1929. It is situated on West Ninety-third Street. Its students are mostly from families of foreign origin, skilled workers, with Germans and Hungarians predominating. When the fine, modern JOHN HAY HIGH SCHOOL opened in the fall of 1929 near University Circle, it absorbed Longwood High School of Commerce. The latter had been organized in 1909 as East Commerce High School, to match the West Side institution started at the same time, and changed its name in 1918. Longwood had served the entire East Side with commercial instruction. The new institution, John Hay, is considered as providing the best facilities in the city, and as good as any in the country, for such training. JOHN MARSHALL HIGH SCHOOL came into the city in 1923 964 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS with the annexation of West Park. Its capacity was soon outrun by the growing population, and a new, adequate building was provided early in 1932, on West One Hundred and Fortieth Street. Previously many of its students had been attending "West Tech" and West Commerce. JOHN ADAMS HIGH SCHOOL, on East One Hundred and Sixteenth Street, in a rapidly growing section, represents some of the newest ideas in secondary education. Dedicated in 1923, and starting as a junior high school, it grew into senior high rank, and by the school year of 1928-9 it had an enrollment of more than 3,400, including. the juniors. It draws from a wide area of workmen and small business men. It covers the whole ground of college preparatory, technical and commercial education. One-fourth of its students are of American birth. It has many practices of interest to educators. COLLINWOOD HIGH SCHOOL is a great, cosmopolitan insti-tution serving the northeastern part of the city, with more than 4,000 students. It was annexed with the village of Collinwood in 1911, enlarged and improved, and now provides a complete technical course for boys, a three-year house-hold arts course for girls and regular academic work for those desiring it. Only a few of its students go to college. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS have had a rapid development since their inauguration in 1915. In the school year of 1930-31 there were twenty-four of them in the city, most of them with their own buildings, a few operated in conjunction with senior high schools. They were Addison, on East Seventy-ninth Street; Alexander Hamilton, on East One Hundred and Thirtieth Street; Audubon, on East Boulevard; Brooklyn Heights, on Schaaf Road; Brownell, on East Fourteenth Street; Central, on East Fifty-fifth Street; Collinwood, on St. Clair Avenue; Detroit, on Detroit Avenue; Empire, on Parmelee Avenue; Fairmount, on East One Hundred and Seventh Street ; Fowler, on Fowler Avenue; John Adams, on East One Hundred and Sixteenth Street; John Marshall, on Lorain Avenue; Kennard, on East Forty-sixth Street; Lincoln, on Scranton Road ; Nathan Hale, on East Boulevard; THE CITY'S LIFE - 965 Patrick Henry, at East One Hundred and Twenty-third Street and Durant Avenue; Rawlings, on Rawlings Avenue; South, on Broadway; Thomas Jefferson, on West Forty-sixth Street; West, on Franklin Boulevard; Wilbur Wright, on Parkhurst Drive; William Dean Howells, on Bridge Avenue; Willson, on East Fifty-fifth Street. In addition, there were 4,138 pupils and 142 junior high teachers housed in sixteen elementary schools. Of SPECIAL SCHOOLS, found necessary to care for children who for various reasons cannot be handled so well in the regular schools, there were in 1930 : The Braille Classes, and the Sight-Saving Classes grouped with them, for the wholly and partially blind, conducted in rooms adapted to them in centrally located school buildings; Classes for Subnormals, a work in which Cleveland pioneered, with 84 teachers caring for more than 1,600 children, who ordinarily would be ex-cluded from school, and training a large part of them for useful work; Alexander Graham Bell School, "an oral school for deaf children," conducted in a building of its own on East Fifty-Fifth Street; Jane Addams School for Girls, a "girls' opportunity school," on Carnegie Avenue,—a bread-and-butter school, training girls for industrial work and serv-ices of many kinds; Thomas A. Edison School, "a day school for truant and problem boys," originated by Superintendent Jones for "a type of boy who is not being properly educated in the existing schools," housed in the building formerly occupied by University School ; Outhwaite and Longwood Schools for the Overage—that is, boys and girls too old for their classes; Sunbeam School for Crippled Children, on East Fifty-Fifth Street near Willson School, where they can have the special care they need ; the Orthopedic Department, with teachers who work with crippled children in the regular schools and in the districts from which the pupils are enrolled. Then there were such outlying schools as the Cleveland Boys' Farm near Hudson, for boys needing. a corrective environment ; the Girls' Farm School, Blossom Hill, near Brecksville ; the Children's Colony of the Tuberculosis Sanitarium at Warrensville, and the Detention Home, for children awaiting 966 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS transfer to the Hudson Farm, Blossom Hill and other insti-tutions. One of the most interesting and valuable educational institutions in Cleveland, and one which is regarded by the government as a standard for the whole country, is the Cleveland Trade School established in 1918, in accordance with an act of Congress to encourage trade education. The pur-pose is to provide a modern substitute for the old trade apprenticeship system which has now died out. The school is on Eagle Avenue, down town, occupying the old Eagle School building, with additions to accomodate foundry practice and other work. It is supported partly by the State and the Federal government. In this school young men, spending there one day out of fourteen, for four years, and the rest of their time on outside jobs, receive expert instruction from prac-tical men in plumbing, carpentry, electric work, painting, automobile mechanics and other trades. Another is the Extension High School, for Adults, organized in 1926 to supply the demand of mature men and women for some opportunity in the public school system to complete a high school education and prepare themselves for college. The classes are held in the evening in Central High School. Yes, education is coming to be a large and varied industry. A library full of books might be written about educational practices in Cleveland today, the things children learn and the ways in which they are taught. A final handful of statistics : At the close of the school year in June, 1931, there were in the Cleveland public schools 145,549 pupils taught and directed by a staff of 5,075.1 whole-time employees. The reader may figure out for himself the problem of one-tenth of an employee. They were distributed as follows : Kindergarten, 9,569; elementary grades, 64,689; junior high grades, 34,637; senior high grades, 19,928; special schools, 3,793 ; special classes, 12,653 ; School of Education, 280. There were 160 schools : one teachers' training school, 12 special schools, 12 senior high schools, 16 junior high schools and 119 elementary schools. The average cost per pupil was $170.09 a year for the senior high children, THE CITY'S LIFE - 967 $133.74 a year for the junior high children, $98.56 for the lower grade children, and $196.99 for those in the mentally defective class. The suburban public schools, which cannot be treated here, follow in general, according to their resources, the Cleveland leadership. The school systems of Cleveland Heights, Shaker Heights and Lakewood are known as particularly modern and efficient. COLLEGES Western Reserve Cleveland has three great groups of buildings, any one of which would attract interest and admiration anywhere in the world. They are the Group Plan down town between Superior Avenue and the Lake, consisting of noble structures devoted to government and other public services : the Terminal Group southwest of the Public Square, representing railroad transportation and affiliated business interests ; and the University Group at the junction of Wade Park and Euclid Avenue, representing higher education and culture. This last group, already the cultural heart of the community, with the vast development now in process, begins to surpass the others in beauty, scope and importance. The nucleus of this group is ADELBERT COLLEGE of Western Reserve University, which started at Hudson, Ohio, in 1826, with a freshman class of three students and one tutor in charge. It was started as a "home missionary" college, under the auspices of the Congregational and Presbyterian churches, to provide higher education under religious influences for the young men of the Western Reserve—whence its original name, Western Reserve College. The village of Hudson, whose situation was regarded as suitable, gained this notable addition by subscribing a fund of $7,150 for the college and donating 160 acres of land for a site. A preparatory school was opened in connection with it, and in 1830 a theological department was established. These were ambitious gestures. And the college was a 968 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS questionable business asset to the community. From the first it was terribly poor and its students were few. Tuition fees were ten dollars a term, and such income provided less than one-tenth of the funds required during the first five years. State aid could not be obtained. It was kept alive by gifts from churches and individuals, and slowly a modest endowment was built up. It resisted all temptations to become strictly or legally denominational. While maintaining a high moral and religious tone, it laid the foundations of an intellectual freedom for which this institution has always been distinguished. From the first, too, there were high standards of fitness insisted on, external as well as internal. Of this fact the old college buildings still standing at Hudson, and used now by the private Western Reserve Academy, bear eloquent witness. The severe beauty of those little old structures delight the eye of the modern architect, and lend charm to a village which still seems a bit of New England. The college was a frontier Yale, in derivation and spirit, as be-fitted a transplanted Connecticut population. It is impossible here to trace in detail the story of that little country college. It was always poor and sliding deeper into debt. Its professors were paid a maximum of $700 a year, half in "stores;" and of the remaining half, they usually contributed a considerable part to the college or its needy students. Tuition fees were paid in labor, lumber, stone, land, furniture, grain, oxen, horses. The college was largely sustained by its own farms, and became a business as well as an educational institution, virtually operating a general store. Workshops were established, too, in which the stu-dents could labor at productive employment. There were cabinet, cooperage, wagon and blacksmith shops. These were not successful financially; but the students learned in them, perforce, such manual skill as comes now to "prep school" boys on the same campus, from choice, in their play-work with woods and metals. The theological department, its endowment eaten up by lean years, may be said to have perished of starvation in 1852. From that time on, the already weakening church THE CITY'S LIFE - 969 bonds loosened rapidly until in 1880, there was nothing left of its denominational attachment but a sentimental memory. In the decade from 1870 to 1880 the entire college enrollment was only 60 to 65 students. Scholarship standards were higher than ever, and the faculty was distinguished, as always, by able men. Among its noted scholars, through the Hudson years, were Charles Backus Storrs, Laurens Perseus Hickok, Samuel C. Bartlett, Clement Long, Nathan Perkins Seymour and Thomas Day Seymour (father and son) , the Hellenists, whose Greek textbooks came to be used through-out the country. There was Elias Loomis, the astronomer, who came to the college in 1837, bringing the third astronomical telescope in the United States and establishing an observatory which still stands, the second oldest existing in America. He made many important discoveries and wrote many books. There was Charles A. Young who followed him in 1856, the third in succession of a family of astronomers, who won fame as a teacher and later as a writer. There were Samuel St. John, the scientist, and Edward G. Bourne, the historian, to name none of the famous modern group of the last half-century. But it was harder and harder to keep the college going. Under President Carrol Cutler's administration, in 1877, the suggestion was made by the Cleveland Herald that in a city environment like Cleveland, the college "would at a bound spring into full life and bene-ficial usefulness." Dr. Hiram C. Haydn, pastor of Old Stone Church and a trustee of the college, interested Amasa Stone, and the latter gave half a million dollars to the college on condition that it would come to the city. By a fortunate coincidence, it happened that at the time these negotiations were under way, preparations were also being made for the establishment in Cleveland of a scientific school in accordance with a bequest left in 1877 by Leonard Case. A committee of public-spirited citizens obtained by subscription a tract of forty-three acres east of Euclid Avenue and Doan Brook, belonging to Liberty E. Holden and admirably suited for a college location. This property was divided between the two colleges, making virtually one cam- 970 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS pus, though the two institutions had no official connection. A main building and a dormitory were promptly erected on the Western Reserve section. The college was transferred from Hudson in September, 1881, to the handsome stone structure provided for it, and was renamed Adelbert College in memory of the donor's son. The institution was now ready for real growth. And in-deed, the first step in expansion was already provided. The Cleveland School of Medicine, organized away back in 1843, having no charter of its own, had been taken under the corporate wing of Western Reserve College as its medical de-partment. The college trustees now formed a corporation called Western Reserve University, to which the college deeded its department of medicine, and presto! Here was a full-fledged university with a liberal arts college and a med-ical school, and ready to mother any number of additional departments. The relation between Adelbert College and the University from the beginning was one of informal affiliation. The two corporations have had a majority of trustees in common and have elected the same executive officers. This relation re-ceives formal recognition in the by-laws of the university, which define the university faculty as including the profes-sors of all departments of the university, along with those of Adelbert College and "of any other colleges and schools that may hereafter be incorporated in the university." Two forms of incorporation in the University have come to be recognized. An educational corporation may convey its school to the university; or it may continue its corporate entity, but with the consent of the university may add the words, "of Western Reserve University," to its corporate title, and elect as its own executives the executive officers of the university. The latter form of incorporation in Western Reserve is generally referred to as its "affiliation." Much of the remarkable growth of the institution during its half-century in Cleveland has doubtless been due to this elastic arrangement. There soon arose, however, a serious complication. West- THE CITY'S LIFE - 971 ern Reserve College had been established frankly and solely for the education of men. Toward the middle of the nine-teenth century there arose a demand for the "elevation of female character" by means of college education, and this appalling innovation was soon exemplified by Oberlin, Vassar and many of the state colleges. The co-educational movement was especially strong in the Middle West. Yielding to the apparently inevitable, Western Reserve College decided in 1872 that women should be admitted to all the privileges of the college on the same conditions as men. The innovation was urged particularly by President Cutler. That fall several girls entered the preparatory school. Two years later one girl entered the college freshman class. Soon there were more. They seem to have been welcomed rather as a necessary evil, because the college needed students, than from any great sense of duty or belief in co-education. Only a few girls had taken advantage of the privilege. This factor changed when the college came to the city. Soon the students were one-fifth women. The female con-tigent was growing more rapidly than the male. Friends of the college began to fear that it would be feminized. The male undergraduates were nearly all opposed to the women, and a situation arose that became unpleasant for everybody. Dr. Hiram C. Haydn became president in 1887. The following year the faculty voted in favor of abandoning co-education, and were upheld by the trustees. The girls, then, were to be eliminated. But they obviously had a right to college education so the trustees suggested the creation of another college within the university, for women alone, where they could have the same facilities as the men. It proved to be an ideal solution, and after the divorce the male and female undergraduates lived more amicably under their sep-arate jurisdictions. Thus was substituted for co-education a system of co-ordination, whereby the men's college was to be virtually duplicated for the women, giving each the advantages of separate existence, yet with the resources of either available for the other in case of need. Here again flexibility has 972 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS proved advantageous. The Adelbert faculty itself made possible the immediate establishment of the College for Women by generously offering to duplicate their instruction in it for three years, thus providing a faculty for the new college until it could get one for itself. Gifts followed from John Hay and Mrs. Amasa Stone, enabling it to open promptly in 1888. Temporary quarters were rented adjacent to Adelbert. Then Mrs. James F. Clarke provided a liberal sum of money, which was used for a building and subsequent instruc-tion. J. H. Wade, a grandson of Jeptha H. Wade who gave the city Wade Park, provided most of the land for the site; and in 1892 the College for Women—so called for lack of a more definite name—had a permanent home between Euclid and Bellflower avenues. It was just near enough to Adelbert College so that the boys and girls who disliked each other in classroom rivalry could appreciate each other's so-ciety outside of study hours. Soon the two institutions each had their own establishments, except for use of the same laboratories, instructors of some departments teaching classes in both colleges, and men and women uniting in some of the advanced classes. The administration of President Haydn was frankly recognized as an ad interim regime, and admirably served that purpose during the period of transition. The modern era of higher education in Cleveland may be regarded as beginning with the administration of Charles Franklin Thwing, who, brought to Cleveland from a pastorate at Minneapolis through the initiative of Dr. Haydn, became president of Adelbert College and Western Reserve University in 1890. In telling of the next three decades, the chronicler is obliged to risk the anticipated protest of a modest gentleman who has had an advisory part in the preparation of this his-tory, and to set forth rather frankly, as a matter of record, some indication of the part played by Doctor Thwing in the cultural life and intellectual progress of the city. The outward, statistical facts alone are significant, and perhaps too well known to require narration in detail. The College for Women, a two-year-old infant, not parentless but THE CITY'S LIFE - 973 homeless, was promptly provided with adequate quarters on Bellflower Road, in what has proved to be the most attractive and desirable part of the metropolitan city, and grew rapidly to maturity. Clark Hall, for general classroom purposes, was built in 1892. Guilford House, the first students' home, came in the same year, as a gift from Mrs. Samuel Mather, and was greatly enlarged and improved two years later. In 1902 the same generous donor built Haydn Hall, named in honor of the former president, providing additional quarters for residence and social purposes. There followed the Flor-ence Harkness Memorial, a beautiful chapel and auditorium. A dignified entrance to the campus from Euclid Avenue was erected in 1904, a new gymnasium in 1907, and in 1913 a building in memory of Mrs. Samuel Mather—greatly en-larged in 1930—for recitation, lecture and administrative purposes. There was completed also, in 1914, a building erected in memory of Mrs. Samuel Mather by graduates and friends, as a students' dormitory. It was in recognition of the dominant service of this benefactor in ministering to the material needs of the college that in 1931 it was finally given the individual name of Flora Stone Mather College—already shortened colloquially to "Mather College." The scholastic rearing of the child to a stature which matched, and surpassed, its outward growth was the work of President Thwing. Within a generation this new institution, rising side by side with its transplanted older-brother college next door, was the acknowledged equal of nearly all of the oldest and best women's colleges in the country. Other children were born to the university in rapid succession, all different in character yet bearing an essential family resemblance. There was the law school, organized in 1892, and in the following year endowed with $50,000 by Mrs. Franklin T. Backus, taking her distinguished husband's name and moving into the Ford home on Adelbert Road vacated by the College for Women. In 1896 it occupied its new and permanent home farther up the road. From the first, this institution, drawing its instruction from a wealth of legal talent available in the city, and maintaining severe 974 - THIS CLEVELAND OF OURS standards, has enjoyed the respect and confidence of the profession it represents. A dental school also was established in 1892, housed in rented quarters down town and later finding a home beyond its dreams on the University campus. In the same fruitful year the long dream of a graduate school was realized. This department differed from the others in having no separate building, equipment, endowment or faculty of its own, but providing its instruction through members of the undergraduate faculties and receiving its income in the form of fees from the graduate students. A School of Library Science was opened in 1904, in Adelbert Hall, the old Adelbert College dormitory building, financed by a fund of $100,000 given by Andrew Carnegie. From it has come a stream of well-trained librarians to take care of the steadily expanding work of Cleveland libraries. In 1908 there was affiliated with the University the School of Pharmacy, organized in 1882 by Cleveland pharmacists, and incorporated in 1886. It was conveyed to the University by deed in 1919. A School of Education was established in 1915, offering summer classes. In 1916 came the School of Applied Social Sciences and the Department of Religious Education. A Department of Nursing Education established in the College for Women in 1921 was reorganized in 1923 as the School of Nursing. Meanwhile the two original departments of the University were growing in scope and service, without losing their leadership. The Medical School, aided by gifts from local philanthropists, particularly those of H. M. Hanna and Colonel Oliver H. Payne for research, experimental medicine and clinical work, steadily enlarged its field and improved its instruction until, while remaining small in the number of students because of its high entrance requirements, it was recognized as ranking with the foremost medical colleges of the country. Adelbert College, which in many ways remained the heart of the University, grew greatly in attendance, equipment, endowment and reputation, providing laboratories, library and other facilities for itself and some of the other departments, maintaining the classical standards