50 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY ducted the first services. There are at present forty inmates, the full capacity of the Home. For twenty years Mrs. John Lehman has been matron, and her husband, John Lehman, has been superintendent for some time. Of Mrs. Lehman it is a pleasure to write. The officers of the Home are : Emil Pollak, president ; M. E. Moch, vice president ; Louis Kuhn, treasurer ; Frank Seinsheimer, recording secretary ; M. Schottenfels, financial secretary. JEWISH SHELTER HOME. The Jewish Shelter Home, an institution for the purpose its name implies, was founded in 1887 by M. A. Miller and M. Feingold. It received its first impetus and support from Beth Tefilla Congregation and is particularly interesting and noteworthy because it is the first systematic work of charity conceived and carried out successfully by the Russian Jews of Cincinnati. The Shelter Home occupied quarters in turn on George street, Barr street, Sixth street and elsewhere, having changed its location seven times in thirteen years. At present the Home occupies its own building at 711 Carlisle avenue, for which it paid $3,500, and with repairs and furnishings, the total cost amounts to $4,500. FRATERNAL ORDERS AND SOCIETIES. Cincinnati has its quota of Jewish fraternal and secret orders and societies. The advisability of secret orders among the Jews has of late years been questioned, and the tendency is to do away with the secret ritual and star chamber sessions. This is true particularly of the B'nai B'rith. The endowment feature of the various orders is rapidly disappearing, partly because the insurance companies make it impracticable, and partly because the increase in membership is not sufficient to keep the assessments on a normal level. The orders represented are: Independent Order B'nai B'rith. Independent Order Free Sons of Israel. Independent Order of B'rith Abraham. Independent Order Sons of Joseph. Independent Order Kesher Shel Barzel. There are also various Zionist societies, together with numerous smaller ones, which are of no special significance. Those affiliated with the educational institute and settlement have been mentioned in proper place. An item of special interest is the consolidation of the Cincinnati B'nai B'rith lodges, which was effective at a joint meeting held on Sunday, Dec. 2nd. The consolidation of the local B'nai B'rith lodges is an event of more than passing importance. Where formerly concurrent action had to be received from half a dozen different and practically independent bodies, before united action could be obtained, there is now only one organization, whose members will decide upon all questions arising, decisively and as a whole. The present number of members of the new lodge is about 800, and it is hoped that within a few weeks the one thousand mark will he reached and passed. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 51 The membership comprises the very best element of the local Jewish community and, as the B'nai B'rith is now a purely altruistic organization, it is difficult to place any limitations upon the possibilities for good of the new lodge. YOUNG MEN'S HEBREW ASSOCIATION. The Young Men's Hebrew Association of Cincinnati has never proved a success, owing probably to the fact that there has been no special demand for such an organization. The Association has periodically taken on activity for the past thirty years, only to relapse into a state of coma again and again. Recently, however, it has again taken a new lease of life and is giving every indication of a more than usually healthy career. It may be that it will thrive, although the settlement would seem to occupy the same field more effectively, particularly as the same people are engaged in the work of both organizations. CEMETERIES. UNITED JEWISH CEMETERY. The congregations K. K. Bene Israel and K. K. Bene Yeshurun jointly own and maintain the beautiful Jewish cemetery on Walnut Hills, consisting of thirteen acres on Gilbert avenue, running from Holloway avenue to Duck Creek road. The cemetery was consecrated in 1862. The first plot of ground was quite small and was subsequently increased by two additional purchases, although it is a source of much regret now that the entire property then available had not been purchased at the outset, as the cemetery is filling up at a melancholy rate. The management of the cemetery is in the hands of a board of twelve delegates, six from each congregation, elected for a term of three years. The first delegates (1862) were : K. K. B. I.—Isaac Marks, Solomon Hoffheimer, Philip Heidelbach, B. Schroeder, Abraham Wolf, Jr., and Lewis Abraham. K. K. B. Y.—Abraham Aub, Solomon Levi, Jacob Elsas, Jacob L. Mack, Jacob L. Miller and Henry Mack. The first officers were: President, Abraham Aub ; vice president, Philip Heidelbach ; secretary, Lewis Abraham ; treasurer, Jacob Elsas. All these sturdy pioneers of blessed memory lie buried in the beautiful cemetery they helped to found. The old cemetery, the one used before the opening of the present one, was on Harrison avenue. The property was condemned for street purposes and such bodies as could be recovered were exhumed and reinterred in the new burial ground. BETH HAMEDRASH HAGODOL. The cemetery of Beth Hamedrash Hagodol Congregation adjoins the Ohave Sholem on Price Hill. Six years ago the congregation purchased eight acres of land, for which $2,000 was paid. A. small chapel and vault costing $1,500 was built. 52 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY LICK RUN CEMETERY. The Lick Run Cemetery, on Price Hill, was established by the Sh'erith Israel congregation in 1855. It consists of a three-acre tract of land purchased originally for the purpose by Hyman Moses and Nathan Maizer, acting for the congregation. A small chapel was at first erected, but last year a fine new mortuary chapel of brick and stone was built at a cost of $5,000. Since the consolidation of Ahabath Achim and Sh'erith Israel congregations, the cemetery belongs to the new congregation in connection with the Clifton cemetery. The members of the new congregation have their choice of either cemetery. JUDAH TOURO. The Judah Touro cemetery is an independent burial ground, if such an expression is admitted. It was organized originally for the use of certain persons who for various reasons did not desire to use the cemeteries belonging to the regular organizations. The cemetery is in Green Township, and is in every respect well kept. OHAVE SHOLEM. The cemetery of Ohave Sholem Congregation is on Price Hill, the first of the three adjoining burial grounds, viz., Ohave Sholem, the Russian Orthodox and the Polish. About three years ago Ohave Sholem congregation purchased this plot of ground for $800, and has since made improvements bringing the cost up to $2,000. CLIFTON CEMETERY. The Ahabath Achim (Society of Brotherly Love) cemetery is beautifully located on Ludlow avenue, Clifton. According to the records the first deed was filed on May 16th, 1848, and recites the conveyance of two and one-half acres of land on the "Cumminsville Turnpike or Hill Road," now Ludlow avenue, to Charles Kahn and wife, Rachel, and from them to Simon Kohn, Moses Westenberger, Samuel Kahn and Henry Winter, the first board of trustees. The first chapel was a small frame building, which was remodeled in 1892 at a cost of $1,080. In April of the present year construction was commenced on the fine new chapel of brick, with stone facings, which has now been completed at a cost of $7,000, including the furnishings and necessary improvements. CHAPTER VIII. PUBLIC SAFETY. VILLAGE COUNCIL IN 1803 PROVIDES FOR A NIGHT WATCHMAN-FIVE DOLLARS FINE FOR DECLINING TO ACT-FIRST MARSHAL JAMES SMITH IN 1802-LAWRENCE M. HAZEN FAMOUS DETECTIVE, A POLICE LIEUTENANT IN 1855 AND CHIEF OF POLICE IN 1869-POLICE STATIONS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT-RELIEF AND BENEVOLENT ASSOCIATIONS-POLICE LIBRARY-FIRE DEPARTMENT-PRIMITIVE METHODS AND APPARATUS-GREAT AND BITTER RIVALRY BETWEEN VOLUNTEER FIRE COMPANIES-HEALTH DEPART M ENT-WATERWORKS. THE POLICE. On March 29, 1803, the village council passed an ordinance appointing a night watch. The community had been stirred to take this step by a fire that had occurred some nights previous. All citizens above twenty-one years of age were to be divided into groups of twelve each. These groups were to act as watchmen in turn. Each group was to choose one of its number as officer of the night. Each group when on service was to divide itself for the night, six men at a time being on duty, "walking to and fro through the streets in a quiet peaceable manner." Any citizen was allowed to engage a substitute of suitable qualifications, such as strength, discretion, sobriety. The watch houses were to be the homes of Hugh McCullum and David J. Poor. A fine of ten dollars was attached to any one who declined to act as officer of the watch. Five dollars were collectable from any man who refused to watch. A watchman's rattle and a large perforated tin lantern was the equipment of a man for this sei vice. The responsibilities of the watchmen at that period were not very great. Early hours were kept by practically all citizens, nine o'clock being the usual bed time. Throughout the night there was seldom any sound heard but the call each hour of the watchmen. This service was without pay. By 1817 a change had been made. At that time the council appointed a captain and six assistants for the night. The commander of the guard was to see to it that the men lighted the street lamps at twilight and kept them trimmed. The watchman had to report at the watch house at nine o'clock, and remain under orders until daybreak. For a long time, the sheriff and his aides, the town marshal, the constable and lesser officers of the courts served most of the purposes of a police force and were "found sufficient to preserve peace and good order in a city whose - 53 - 54 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY population, though heterogeneous in character and pursuits, is yet remarkable for its good morals and regular conduct." In the latter part of 1825 a town watch was organized, consisting of two captains and eighteen men. This organization was maintained at a cost of three thousand dollars a year. Under the village organization the Marshals had been James Smith, chosen 1802 ; Andrew Brannon, 1813 ; James Chambers, 1814-1818. The marshals of the city were William Ruffin, 1819-20 ; Samuel R. Miller, 1821 ; John C. Avery, 1822-24 ; William C. Anderson, 1825-26 ; Zebulon Byington, 1827-28 ; William Doty, 1828-32 ; Jesse Justice, 1833-34; James Saffin, 1835- 46 ; Ebenezer Hulse, 1847-48; Charles L. Ruffin, 1849-54; William Craven, 185557 ; Benjamin Robinson, 1858; John S. Gano, 1859. Zebulon Byington was elected marshal in 1827, having been a constable and a member of the watch previously. At this time the council arranged for the appointment of one captain, one assistant and five patrolmen. The captain was authorized to engage other patrolmen up to Tour, if needed. William Doty was chosen marshal in 1829, and served four years. While he was in office he was authorized by council to organize a night watch of not more than twenty men, and to procure a building in the center of the city for a watch house, where the watchmen could gather evening and morning to report. In 1833, Jesse Justice became marshal, and held office for two years. In 1834 the salary of this officer was fixed at one thousand dollars per year. James Saffin was elected marshal in 1835 and remained in this position for twelve years. The fees of a marshal were at that time very considerable, such an officer making from fifteen to twenty-five thousand dollars. June 18, 1834, a levy of one mill on the dollar for the maintenance of the night watch was made. In 1840 an ordinance was passed fixing the watchman's pay at one dollar a night. The deputies of the marshal in 1836 were Ira Butterfield and George Whann. Butterfield in 1840 became captain of the watch. James Wise was lieutenant. There were then twenty-one men in the watch, three from each ward. Up to 1840 the watch had been chosen by the council. Now by an act of March 19th in that year it was arranged that the watchmen should be elected. This was to be done by wards, and council was to decide as to the number for each ward. These watchmen were to be chosen at the same elections that chose the city council. Watchmen were to be elected from the wards in which they lived. Those first chosen under the new arrangement were James Ewan, Peter Early, John Redhead, Robert Cappin, Jesse B. Baldwin, Aaron G. Dodd, and John Cordeman. The captain was Ira Butterfield, with James Wise as lieu-, tenant. May 27, 1842, the council passed an ordinance to the effect that the city should have also a day watch of two men, to be chosen by council and to be remunerated at one dollar and twenty-five cents each per day. In 1843 Henry E. Spencer became mayor, and during his time in office the command of the watch was in the hands of a captain, being taken from the CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 55 control of the marshal. The captains during Spencer's term as mayor were William Small and Jacob Jacobs. In 1844, the council passed an ordinance authorizing the mayor and marshal to call upon a number of men less than ten from each ward in case of need, and to have these sworn as deputy marshals and to act under the mayor and marshal. In 1846, arrangement was made to employ private watchmen for the merchants, these special watchmen to be compensated by the merchants but to have like powers with other city watchmen. In 1847 Ebenezer Hulse became marshal ; he served but one term. In 1849 James L. Ruffin became marshal and served until 1854; some years later he became chief of police. The pay of watchmen in 1849 was one dollar and thirty-five cents per night, that of lieutenants one dollar and fifty cents and that of the captain of the watch one dollar and seventy-five cents. In March, 1850, the council arranged that at the April election six day watchmen from each ward of the city be chosen, at the same wages as the night watchmen. The latter part of April, council decided that there should be a chief of police and six lieutenants, to serve a year each, to be chosen by council. Four lieutenants were to serve during the night and two during the day. While five watchmen from each ward were to serve at night and one during the day. The night watch and the principal lieutenants were ordered to gather at the watch house every evening one hour after sunset to answer to their names. Watchmen and night lieutenants were to be on duty until sunrise, and then again appear at roll call. These were to be succeeded by the day force, whose hours would end at sunset. The captains of the watch in 1851 were Peter Early, David Hoke and John C. Coutch. June 25, 1851, the lieutenants were reduced to one with three assistants. A sergeant of police was appointed at that time for each ward. In 1853, Jacob Kiefer was appointed chief of police. His lieutenants were John Dunker, Joseph Cassidy, William Phillips, Simeon Rouse, Xavier Cramer and F. Housman. At this period there were six. watchmen for each of the sixteen wards, ninety-six in all. There were also six river watchmen, two canal watchmen, two watch house keepers and two keepers. for the Hammond street station house and two for the Bremen street station house. Thomas Looken became chief of police soon after Kiefer's appointment as the latter was in office but a brief time. In the latter part of 1853 a riot occurred in which a policeman was shot, whereupon the chief ordered his men to use their clubs. Several men were injured and one died shortly afterward. This occurrence, though entirely justifiable, aroused bitter feeling against the police, and the mayor was obliged to dismiss Chief. Looken, who had done nothing more than his duty. David Hoke became chief of police. During the Know-Nothing riot April, 1855, Hoke summoned his police and after a .turbulent experience dispersed the mob. 56 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY After this election in 1855 Edward H. Hopkins became chief of police, with Benjamin Ertel, William S. Hudson, Lawrence M. Hazen, L. Parker and G. W. Rose as lieutenants. The famous chief of detectives Hazen appears thus for the first time on the police force of Cincinnati. In 1856 there were seventy-two watchmen besides the keepers of the watch houses at the Ninth, Pearl and Hammond station houses. In 1857. James L. Ruffin became chief of police. The police force was at this date reduced to ninety men. March 14, 1859, the legislature passed an act constituting a board of police commissioners. Four men were to be appointed by the mayor, police judge and city auditor, and these four with the mayor were to form the board. This board, without salary, was to appoint the chief of police, lieutenants, watchmen and keepers of the station houses. The marshalship was dispensed with, and the chief of police was to assume these duties and to receive fifteen hundred dollars from the city and five hundred dollars from the county as salary. In 1859. Lewis Wilson became chief of police. Colonel John W. Dudley became chief of police in 1861. He was succeeded by Lawrence Hazen. On account of an attack made by Morgan's men, the police force of Cincinnati was organized as a battalion of infantry. In 1863 James L. Ruffin again became chief. The mayor, Harris, was a noted disciplinarian and the influence of his work with the police force has remained until this day. The police were drilled in a military manner, and politics was taken out of the police department. In 1867 Robert Megrue became chief. James L. Ruffin succeeded him, and remained chief until 1871, when David M. Bleaks was chosen to this office. The legislature in 1873 again changed the police department, arranging for a; commission of four men to be chosen at the spring election. Wesley M. Cameron, Gustav Hof, Henry Kessler and Hugh Campbell were elected on this commission. About this time the title superintendent of police was substituted for that of chief, and Jeremiah Kiersted was chosen superintendent, and served, except for a brief interval, until February, 1875. In 1874 the mayor again took charge of police affairs, the board of police commissioners having been done away with. In February, 187s5-, the mayor appointed Thomas E. Snelbaker as superintendent. In 1877, Jacob Johnson succeeded to this position. In that year the legislature reestablished the Board of police commissioners. Ira Wood became chief, but died in 1878 and George Ziegler was made superintendent. Charles Jacob, Jr., in 1879, was appointed superintendent of police. In 1881 Jacob Gessert was appointed but resigned in a few weeks, and was followed by M. F. Reilly. A new board of police commissioners, with salaries of fifteen hundred dollars each, was established in 1885, the members to be appointed by the board of public works. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 57 Colonel Edwin Hudson was appointed superintendent. Charles Wappenstein was made chief of detectives. James Dunn was appointed inspector. Shortly afterward, Lieutenant Thomas Weaver was appointed inspector and Captain Grannon was made chief of detectives. Later, Michael Mullen was made inspector. On account of charges brought before him, the governor of Ohio dismissed the board of police commissioners. The legislature on March 30, 1886, passed a bill with a view to taking the police entirely out of politics. It was provided that all police affairs should rest with the mayor and four police commissioners, not more than two of whom should belong to the same party. The commissioners were to be appointed by the governor. The mayor was to have the appointment of policemen and officers of police, with approval of the board. Appointments were to be made from a strictly non-partisan standpoint. The governor appointed as members of the commission Robert J. Morgan, George R. Topp, republicans, and Milo G. Dodds and Dr. Thomas C. Minor, democrats. Robert J. Morgan was chosen president and James S. Gordon as clerk. Samuel B. Warren shortly afterward became clerk. In 1887 Morgan left the commission, when James Boyle succeeded him. In 1888 George R. Topp resigned and his place was taken by Louis Werner. Dr. Minor was president of the board during 1887. Topp was president until August, 1888. Mr. Milo G. Dodds followed him in the presidency. Under the new arrangement, Arthur G. Moore was the first superintendent of police. After serving about two months, he was succeeded by Philip H. Deitsch, who remained superintendent until his death, a period of about seventeen years. Paul M. Millikin then became superintendent of police. In 1854 there came into being the beginnings of the detective department. But the separate organization was made in 1886. Philip Rittweger was the first man at the head of this bureau. He held this position only about half a year, when Ralph A. Crawford was appointed. About the beginning of 1887, Colonel Lawrence Hazen became head of the detective bureau. In 1903 the police department was put in charge of the Board of Public Safety, appointed by the Mayor. The police force of this city has an admirable and well-equipped gymnasium, work in which is compulsory. It is popular with the entire force and has been of great service. There is also a school of instruction for the police force. Here they are taught such things as bear upon their duties, something as, to laws, national and state, city ordinances, their duties and powers, the topography of Cincinnati, etc. Since 1902 the police department has been under civil service rules. The Police Relief Association; organized in 1876, is for the relief of sick or disabled policemen and their families. The Policemen's Benevolent Association is organized on the assessment plan for the families of deceased policemen. 58 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY The patrol wagon service was established in 1881. The police department includes a "Rogues' Gallery" and Bertillon room, similar to those in other large cities. Mrs. Frederick H. Alms has provided for the presentation of a medal for bravery to such policemen as signalize their faithfulness to duty in times of peril. The "Roll of Honor" is a record of names of the policemen who have distinguished themselves by brave deeds, and a place on this list is much coveted. A gold medal, value fifty dollars, was for years annually given by Robert J. Morgan to the policeman who had proved most efficient in his duties during the year. John McGramm in 1887 was the first to receive this medal ; nine others at the same time received honorable mention. The Nicholas Longworth medal is now given under the same conditions. The Wing Medal and the Henshaw Medal are also given for bravery. Night Chief Corbin was injured fatally by falling over a hose at the great Chamber of Commerce fire in January, 1911, and died a few days later. Lieutenant Krumpe was appointed in his place. The organization of the police department consists now of : chief, I ; inspectors, 3 ; lieutenants, 21; sergeants, 32 ; corporals, 10 ; patrolmen, 457 station house keepers, 36 ; drivers, 30 ; matrons, 4 ; detectives, 7 ; acting detectives, 17 ; court officers, 9 ; total, 627. The new patrol house No. 1, a modern building, has been completed. The automobile patrol located at police headquarters has proved of invaluable service. The new District No. 2, now in contemplation, will put the down town districts of this department in very good shape. The police inspectors devote much time to the supervision of the discipline, efficiency and general appearance of the men, together with the inspection and general superintendence of the buildings and other property of the department. They make frequent tours of inspection of the various districts and visit the station houses and patrol houses at irregular intervals, and when such visits are unexpected. They attend all large fires and public demonstrations of importance ; preside over various classes convened for the purpose of instruction in drill, calisthenics, target shooting, and the general duties of policemen, and endeavor to maintain and promote the discipline and efficiency of the department. The uniformed members of the department are divided into companies, troops and squads. The military organization thus formed comprises ten permanent and three provisional companies, a mounted troop and recruit squad, each under command of competent officers. They are required to attend drill and target practice once a week for a period of three months, unless excused on account of sickness or official duty. The gymnasium is kept open during the entire year for all members desiring to avail themselves of the use of the apparatus and baths, which are at their disposal at any time, provided such use does not interfere with regular class work. The men are required to attend class exercises once a week, except during the season devoted to drill and the extremely hot weather in midsummer. Certain new buildings are needed and the remodelling of old ones is imperative and these are in contemplation and will soon be under way. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 59 The old armory in the City hall has been remodeled, transformed into a garage, an auto-patrol wagon has been installed for emergency calls and for rapidly conveying policemen to the scene of an accident, fire or other occasion requiring the immediate presence of several policemen, and as a relay in relieving the suburban patrol wagons by meeting them on their route to the hospital and transferring the injured. The Police Telephone and Signal Service is of the most modern and effective kind. In one year there were handled a total of messages and connections of 1,081,922. The Police Library contains 1,800 volumes. 718 volumes were given out the last year to members of the department. There was a total of attendance in class exercises at the gymnasium of 4,961. The city has real and personal property for police purposes $296,450, in station and patrol houses, real estate and personal property. The relief fund disbursed in 1909 for pensions to members, widows and minor children, sick benefits to members, death benefits and funeral expenses, salary of secretary and incidental expenses, $45,754. In very marked contrast with the simple early days of the few volunteer watchmen are the police and other officials of today with their automobiles. THE FIRE DEPARTMENT. Incendiary fires during 1800 aroused the inhabitants of the then village of about eight hundred people to the necessity of protection against fires. They found themselves ill equipped to contend with this peril, and still further fires having occurred, the citizens in 1801 held a meeting to discuss the possibility of procuring a fire engine. This movement came to nothing. unless it was to start an agitation which later might bring results. But when the town was chartered in 1802, another public meeting for fire protection was called. This was held July 14th in the newly erected courthouse, at Walnut and Fifth streets. The citizens recommended that the council spend twelve dollars for six fire-ladders and twelve dollars for six fire-hooks. This was the first fire equipment of Cincinnati, and it served the village until 1808. The Spy, December 19th, .1801, published the summons to the public to meet to consider the purchase of a fire engine. In 1802, it was enacted that "Every freeholder and every person being a householder and paying an annual rent as high as thirty-six dollars must be provided with a black-jack and leather bucket of a capacity of two and one-half gallons and contribute the use of it and his own physical exertions whenever he should hear a cry of fire. Every male between sixteen •and fifty years of age had to serve. Such was the first step for fire protection in that Cincinnati that was to produce the first fire engine to be operated by steam—a blessing that the entire world now appreciates." Cincinnati was then a very compact settlement, on account of fear of the Indians. The water supply was small. The region round about was full of dry and dead wood. 60 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY The fires that were declared to be incendiary were blamed upon the soldiers of the garrison. No one knows the truth of this matter, but it was asserted that after the garrison was transplanted to the other side of the river there were fewer fires. In 1808 a fire engine was procured, doubtless a very poor one, such as was used in those days. This might be hauled either by horses or by men. The general fashion was to have a long rope attached to the pole, so that a company of men and boys might haul it from place to place. Mr. L'Hommedieu, in his recollections, going back to 1810, does not speak of this engine. He states that "every one able to labor was required to be on hand with his long leather fire bucket, and form in line to the river, to pass buckets with water to the fire. Every householder was required to keep one of these hung tip, marked and ready for instant use." Dr. Drake in 1815 declared the fire protection inefficient, and said the ordinance in regard to fire buckets was generally disregarded. He declared that the order requiring every male citizen between fifteen and fifty years of age to answer the cry of fire was a "Provision finely calculated, if enforced, to augment the rabble which infest such places." He said bonfires and all other burnings in the village were "expressly but not successfully forbidden." The ordinances also required that when a fire broke out each drayman in the place must provide at least two barrels of water. A newspaper in commenting upon Dr. Drake's book issued in 1816 said, "in the event of a fire on the hill there is no resource but to tug away at the windlass or wait the arrival of the draymen from the river." The Union Fire Company was formed in 1808. Nearly all the men and grown boys in the village were members of this association. But this organization soon went to pieces. From 1813 to 1815 it did not hold a meeting. July, 1808, there was organized the Cincinnati Fire Bucket Company. For its work it had a huge willow basket set on a four-wheeled truck, and within this receptacle'the fire buckets were placed. It was required that every householder have two of these buckets and that they should be kept on his premises in such position that they could readily be found and used. This company occupied quarters on Fourth street, opposite the St. Paul building. There is now preserved in the quarters of the fire department the fire drum, which was used from 1808 until 1824 to notify the people of the breaking out of 'fires. The drum heads are five feet and four inches in diameter. This drum was placed on the roof of a low frame building, used as a carpenter shop, so that it could be reached by any one to announce a fire. The roof could be gained by means of a ladder at the rear. The successor of this drum, as the city grew beyond the scope of its sound, was the bell of the First Presbyterian church. This was used as a fire alarm until 1845. The Washington company, number one, was organized in 1810. In 1813 the council authorized the purchase of a fire engine, which was pro- CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 61 cured in 1816. This engine was bought by General John S. Gano. Relief Fire Company, number two, took charge of it. February 12th, 1815, a fire took place at the Davis Embree brewery, and this event awakened the public mind to the need of better preparation to fight fires. "Liberty Hall" said : "On this subject a reform is indeed indispensable. Another and better engine should be procured, rival companies should be organized, and their officers invested with power to press into active service or disperse the mob of knaves, fools and gentlemen who generally press round our fires and look up with the smiling and idiot gaze which they would bestow on a flight of rockets." Mr. Embree, however, published his thanks to all who had helped bring the fire under control, and declared that "on this occasion they evinced conduct which would do credit to the best organized fire companies." In the directory of 1819, we read : "There are two engines owned by the corporation, but strange as it may appear, neither of them are kept in proper repair. A most unpardonable apathy on this subject pervades our citizens generally. Almost destitute of ladders, fire-hooks, buckets (or even water in most parts of the city,) should the fiery element assail us in a dry and windy season, the denouement of the awful tragedy would be a general devastation of our now flourishing city. The most practicable means ought immediately to be taken for creating a supply of water, the number of engines increased and put in working condition, and every other apparatus procured which can be of service in restricting the ravages of this powerful destroyer. Otherwise the "good easy man," who retires to his couch meditating on the competency of his fortune, may stalk forth a beggar in the morning." A fire ordinance was passed October 2, 1819 in order to put the department on a better basis. The Cincinnati Fire Wardens Association was soon organized. November 15th, 1819, the Independent Fire Company, Number Three, was organized at the shop of Thomas Tucker on Main street. Eighteen members enlisted for service. This company's first engine was called "Constitution ;" water was supplied for it by a line of buckets reaching to a cistern or the river or some other source. This company later added the engine "Liberty" and the hose-reel "Veteran." Still another engine, one called "Independence," was purchased in 1820 and replaced the old one. The Independence Fire Company, No. 3, later bought ground on Fourth street, between Walnut and Vine streets, the site for many years of the Robert Clarke company's bookstore, and there put up an engine house. Once, in 1822, the city's chief engineer issued an order to this fire company to take their engines to the river, but they declined, stating they were under no obligation to obey the city officers. The council declared the chief engineer had acted within his rights, but the fire company continued to insist on its independence. In May 1820, Fire Engine Company, Number Four, began regular operations. Its engine, one with fire buckets, was called the "Nereide." The quarters of this company were on Sycamore street near Lower Market. This company changed its location in 1824 to Sycamore and Third streets, and later to Ham- 62 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY mond and Third streets. The name of the company afterward became Eagle Fire Company, Number Four. An organization was formed in 1820 known as the Protection Company, Number One, with the object of saving lives and property and guarding against robberies during fires. An ordinance was passed in 1821 giving fire wardens authority to operate in any wards of the city. The same act ordered the fire marshal to see that fire buckets were at hand in all homes and other buildings. A fine of $3.50 was to be imposed on such as were found negligent in this respect. July 5, 1821, an ordinance was passed authorizing the Council to appoint yearly three persons in each ward as fire wardens. These men were to carry speaking trumpets and wear badges indicating their office. They were given power to have lumber, fences and other inflammable materials removed where they appeared to be possible sources of danger. When three of these men were agreed as to the necessity of such a measure they could have any house or building removed. They were authorized to bid capable men to join the fire forces in an emergency, to carry water or to take any part in fighting the fire apart from exposure to real danger. "Chief engineer" was the title given the head of this department. The department was further authorized to organize companies of volunteer firemen. Such companies could choose their own foreman and secretary. One man, in each company, was to see to it that the fire buckets were taken to fires, and he was responsible for their return, after being washed, to their proper places. Each householder was ordered to keep at hand leather fire buckets and the number of these was to be according to the largeness or smallness of his dwelling. The regulations enjoined upon householders great care to avoid the perils of fires. A fine was imposed if a chimney caught on fire because of negligence in not having it cleaned. No one was permitted to set fire to his chimneys to clean them save in daylight, and then only when it was raining or snow lay on the roof. It was unlawful to set fire to shavings on the streets. It was forbidden to keep stacked grain within one hundred yards of any building in the city. It was forbidden that any one should keep on hand more than a limited amount of gunpowder. Marshals and fire wardens had the right to search all houses to see if this regulation was being violated. No one was permitted to carry a light in a stable, unless it were enclosed in a lantern. These eminently sensible precautionary measures doubtless reduced greatly the number of fires, but it was not to be expected that these or any other rules could do away entirely with the perils of fire. In fact, a number of serious fires did occur at this period. Conditions in respect to fire protection had bettered considerably by 1825. The department then "consisted of four engine companies, one hose company, one hook and ladder company, a bucket company and a protection society." Thomas Tucker was the chief engineer and Jeremiah Kiersted was his assistant. The Directory states, "There are one hundred and fifty-five firemen and sixteen fire wardens. The utensils of the fire department are in first rate repair, and the companies well organized and ready on the first notice to do their duty." CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 63 Each engine company consisted of about twenty-five men, and the foreman of each was called captain. There were twenty-five men in the hose company, in charge of eighteen hundred feet of hose. The hook and ladder company consisted of thirty men. The special business of the bucket company was to look after and keep in order the fire buckets. There were fifty members of the Protection society, many of the chief citizens of the community being of the number. An observer in 1826 declared that the firemen "keep the engines in excellent order, and in cases of fire were prompt, active and persevering." The City Council had at this time completed five brick cisterns, in different parts of the city, each containing five thousand gallons of water. In 1826 Fire Engine Company, No. 4, became the Eagle Fire Company, Number Four, as a regular addition to the department. Moses Lyon was foreman. Jeremiah Kiersted was chief engineer. In 1829 Fire Company Number Five was organized. It occupied quarters on Vine and Canal streets for a time, but later removed to Vine between Court and Canal. Its engines "Fame" and "Jefferson" were built in this city by Jeffrey Seymour. This company had in its membership three men who became mayor and a number of other leading citizens. By 1829 the fire department had nine regular companies. Fire Warden Company, No. 1, John L. Avery, president, Moses Brooks, secretary, and twenty members. Fire Engine Company, No. 1, Hugh Galbreath, foreman, S. R. Teal, assistant with thirty-five members. Fire Engine Company, No. 2, A. G. Dodd, foreman, J. S. Ross assistant, with thirty-five members. Fire Engine Company, No. 3, William Brown foreman, thirty-five members. Fire Engine Company, No. 4, Thomas Barwise foreman, John Morris, assistant, thirty-five members. Hose Company No. 1, thirty-five members. Protection Society, Joseph Gest president, William Mills vice president, David Churchill secretary, Stephen Burrows treasurer, seven directors, fifty members with the privilege of extending membership to one hundred. This society was composed chiefly of leading citizens. Fire bucket company, A. M. Ferguson, foreman, Nathaniel Reeder assistant. Two more cisterns, of capacity of five thousand gallons each, had now been constructed, making seven in all at this time. Water was piped to these from the water works. Of the two cisterns built in 1828, one was at the intersection of Main and Eighth streets, and the other at Fourth and Sycamore streets. Zebulon Byington was chief engineer and Moses Coffin was his assistant. On December 31, 1829, there was a serious fire, on Main street below Third. The conflagration spread as far as Fourth street. The cisterns proved inadequate and a bucket line of citizens was formed from the river. It was apparent to all that the fire protection arrangements of the city were entirely inadequate, and a public meeting was called to consider further measures. Another company, the Cincinnati Independent Fire Engine and Hose Company, popularly known as the "Silk Stocking Company," or the "Rovers," was organized February 22, 1830. By the co-operation of the City Council, the insurance companies and the people in general a liberal amount of money was raised for the equipment of this company. Two new engines and a hose reel were purchased in Philadelphia, for four thousand dollars. One was an eight-inch double-chamber engine of thirty-four men-power, discharging four and four-fifths gal- 64 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY ions per stroke in two streams. The other was a suction engine, with double seven-inch chambers of thirty-men power, discharging four gallons at each stroke. There was a hose of fifteen hundred feet, eight and one-half inches in diameter, on a double hose-reel. A contract was made for a new engine house, to be constructed on Fourth street near Broadway. The president of the company was George W. Neff ; vice president, Joseph Pierce ; secretary, Charles D. Dana ; treasurer, Kirkbride Yardley. In 1830 there was formed the Cincinnati Fire Association, composed of members of the several companies, with the object of regulating the department, taking care of the sick and disabled members and arbitrating differences. John L. Avery was president ; John J. Stratton vice president ; Joseph Landis secretary and William Scudder treasurer. This association inaugurated a yearly procession of all the companies early in each May. In 1830, the Eagle Company, Number Four, changed its name to Franklin Fire Engine and Hose Company, Number Four. In August 1832, the Cincinnati Fire Guards were organized. Under this arrangement, the police ranged themselves in a line round the fire, restrained the crowds behind this boundary, looked after property, and were authorized to order onlookers to render assistance. In 1832 the "Flat Iron" or "Checked Shirt" Company was formed. The nicknames were given because a considerable number of the members were mechanics and wore checked shirts. The incorporated name was the Cincinnati Fire Engine and Hose Company, Number Two. Bellamy Storer and S. W. Davis announced the formation of this company in February, at a public meeting; also that apparatus had been bought. The engines were the "Deluge" and the "Cataract," and the hose carriage was called the "Pioneer." An engine house for this company was built at the corner of Symmes and Lawrence streets. In 1834, the directory stated "much attention has been bestowed by the city council upon this important department. There are belonging to it fifteen engines and ten thousand, one hundred and fifty feet of hose. It is divided into brigades, each of which has two engines, a hose company, and one hundred and fifty members in it. There are belonging to this department fifteen engines, seven hose-reels, one hundred and eighty-six buckets, and seven brigades, besides an engine belonging to the boys." The Vigilant Fire Engine and Bucket Company, with seventy-five members, was chiefly composed of boys and youths. Benjamin Brice was president ; Henry Pierce, vice president ; James Galbreath, secretary ; William Coppin, treasurer; Samuel James, foreman and engineer ; Miller Ayres foreman of the bucket company. In 1836 the department was organized into eight brigades. Each of these had two engines and a hose company. These were manned by one hundred and fifty firemen. For each brigade there was a chief, with assistants, secretary and treasurer. These brigades were called Washington Fire Engine Company, No. 1, manning the Pat Lyon and Ohio engines and the Ranger hose carriage ; Relief Fire Engine No. 2 with the Relief and Cincinnati engines and Reliance hose carriage ; Independence Fire Company No. 3, Constitution and Liberty engines CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 65 and veteran hose ; Franklin Fire Company No. 4, Neptune and Atlantic Engines and Nymph hose ; Brigade Fire Company, No. 5. Fame engine and Canal hose; Cincinnati Independence Fire Company No. I, Waterwitch and Pilot engines and Red Rover hose; Cincinnati Independent Fire Company, No. 2. Cataract and Deluge engines and Pioneer hose; Independent No. 3, Buckeye, with Buckeye and Niagara engines and Diligent hose. There were also the Fire Warden Company No. 1, composed of six members from each ward ; the Cincinnati Fire Guards No. I ; Protection Society No. I ; Hook and Ladder Company, No. t. There were in 1836 twenty-seven fire cisterns, and fifty-five cast iron plugs. The Fire Department Insurance Company was incorporated April, 1837, with capital stock of fifty thousand dollars. It existed for the benefit of the department firemen; shares were sold only to firemen and no one could hold more than fifty shares, value ten dollars. The several companies could as corporations hold an unlimited amount of stock. For relief of sick or injured firemen, ten per cent of dividends were set apart. Marine insurance was later added to fire risks. About this period, another company, the Buckeye Independent, No. 3, was formed. The fire department in 1840-41 was made up of eleven companies. These were, Washington, Number One, two engines and one hundred and four members, with the hose men ; Relief, with ninety-six members; Independence, eighty-eight ; Franklin, seventy-four ; Fame, seventy-four ; Independent, one hundred and twenty-nine; Fire Engine and Hose Independent, Number Two, eighty-one ; Cincinnati Fire Guards, sixty-six ; the Hook and Ladder Company, forty-two. There were four hundred and seventy-one members of the Protection Society. The company of Fire Wardens No. I had thirty-two members. There were now thirty-four cisterns and thirty-five fire plugs. The Cincinnati Fire Association was compelled in 1844 to put in force strict rules for the several companies while on duty at fires. The rivalries and confusion were such that companies got in the way of each other, ran engines on sidewalks and quarreled with each other. The rulings were that the first arriving engine had choice of place at the cistern but must give fair chance to later comers. When it was needful to move, the last comer must go first. All racing was forbidden under penalty of fines. Twelve districts were formed, and arrangements were made as to the division of labor in caring for fires. The company first hearing an alarm was to sound it again, and after an interval strike the district signal, and continue to alternate the two until all companies had arrived. Another company, the Queen City Hook and Ladder Company, entered the department in May, 1845. As by September; 1846, the city had not provided a building for this company on its lot, the members prepared to erect one for themselves. Marching with music to their lot they speedily put up a one story board house. This was their home for a year, and was known as "Rough and Ready Hall." Later the city aided the members in providing a better shelter. In 1848 Cincinnati firemen entered into a contest with a fire company from Louisville that excited much interest at the time and redounded to the glory of the Cincinnati department. The Louisville company brought with them their Vol. II-5 66 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY engine to compete with any Cincinnati could furnish. The "Flat Iron Company" took up the Louisville challenge. The site selected for the contest was at Third and Broadway. The height reached by the water thrown by the Louisville engine was 201 and one half feet. The "Deluge" of the Flat Iron company sent a stream upward 210 feet. The fire department in 1851 included eighteen companies, engine companies, hose companies and a hook and ladder company. There were forty-five carriages of the best make and other apparatus placed appropriately over the city. The department was composed of eighteen hundred members. There were eighty-three public cisterns and seventy-nine fire plugs. The bitter rivalries between the companies often led to quarrels, and threatened the efficiency of the whole department. In 1851 a battle between the companies took place during a fire at John and Augusta streets. It began between two of the companies and grew until ten companies engaged in it, while the building that needed their attention was allowed to burn down. The mayor attempted unsuccessfully to quiet matters, and the quarrel was kept up throughout the night. The Covington Fire Company, hearing of what was in progress came over and took sides with one party. A resolution was later passed to the effect that no Covington company would be allowed' to come to a fire in Cincinnati save by request of the city authorities. A change was evidently necessary to a new order of things. The city had outgrown the volunteer system. Many of the citizens who were fire wardens were too busy with their own affairs to look after the interests of the fire department. For some years the newspapers had commented on the neglect of the fire wardens. Cist in 1845 had written in reply to these censures : "What can persons expect from such men as Judge Torrence or Councilman Stephenson, two of the best among them ? Do they imagine they can neglect their own business and spend six days of the week examining whether the houses of a large city such as ours are exposed to taking fire from the carelessness of neighbors ? The whole system is deficient and defective. There are thirty-two fire wardens, about three to a ward, having general jurisdiction wherever they please to exercise it,—which, of course, is nowhere. If we desire to have any good result from the appointment of such officers, let the institution' be remodelled. Let each block in the city have its own fire warden, who will then be interested in taking care of the block ; and fine him five dollars for every fire which results from his neglect to remove all undue exposedness to it." A movement for reform began. Miles Greenwood, James H. Walker and other prominent citizens led in the movement. At that time steam fire engines were beginning to be planned and built, though none had proved practically successful. One had been used for a brief time in New York, but without good results. In "The Great Industries of the United States," 1872, we read : "The first steam fire engine was built in London, in 1830, by Mr. Braithwaite. It weighed over five thousand pounds, was of about six horse power, generated steam in about twenty minutes, and could send about one hundred and fifty gallons of water a minute from eighty to ninety feet high. The boiler was upright. The CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 67 steam and water pistons were placed at opposite ends of the same piston-rod, the stroke of each being sixteen inches, and their diameters seven and a half and six inches , respectively. The clumsiness of the apparatus, and the length of time necessary to get up steam, were the chief objections made to this first steam fire engine. The entire feasibility, however, of the idea of making steam fire engines was settled beyond question, and the attention of inventors, as well as that of the public, was turned into the direction of so improving them as to remove the objectionable features of this first attempt, and to replace the cumbersome and inadequate use of hand engines for the extinguishing of fires by the more efficacious and handy use of steam engines. "In 1841 an engine was built in New York, at the expense of the combined fire insurance companies of that city, by Mr. Hodges, which performed good service upon several occasions at fires in that metropolis. It was a very powerful steam fire engine, but its extreme weight made it so difficult to handle readily that it was finally sold to be applied to other purposes. "In 1852 the city of Cincinnati, having resolved to organize its fire department upon the basis of steam fire engines, and thus obtain at once the greater efficiency from their use, and also to do away with the evils incident to a volunteer fire department, had an engine constructed by Mr. A. A. Latta, which was finished in the early part of the next year. In this engine the steam was used as a partial aid to its propulsion, but its great weight,—nearly twelve tons,—necessitated also the use of four strong horses to drag it. Other lighter ones were built the next year, and finally all idea of using steam in propelling the steam fire engine had been done away with by the best constructors. "The first of these engines built by Cincinnati was peculiar in the method of its construction. It had a square fire-box, like that of a locomotive boiler, with a furnace open at the top, upon which was placed the chimney. The upper part of the furnace was occupied by a continuous coil of tubes opening into the steam chamber above, while the lower end was carried through the fire-box, and connected outside with a force-pump, by which the water was to be forced continually through the tubes throughout the entire coil. When the fire was commenced the tubes were empty, but when they became sufficiently heated the force-pump was worked by hand, and water forced into them, generating steam which was almost instantly produced from the contact of the water with the hot pipes. Until sufficient steam was generated to work the engine regularly, the force-pump was continuously operated by hand, and a supply of water kept up. By this means the time occupied in generating steam was only from five to ten minutes but the objections to thus heating the pipes empty and then introducing water into them are too well known to be insisted upon here. "The engines made upon this pattern were complicated and heavy, but efficacious, and ,led to their introduction in other cities, and also to a quite general establishment in cities of a paid fire department in place of the voluntary one, which had theretofore prevailed. The lightest steam fire engine constructed upon this method weighed about ten thousand pounds. It was carried to New York upon exhibition, and upon a trial there threw, in 1858, about three hundred and seventy-five gallons a minute, playing about two hundred and thirty-seven feet, through a nozzle measuring an inch and a quarter, and getting its water supply 68 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY from a hydrant. The same engine is said to have played in Cincinnati two hundred and ten feet, through a thousand feet of hose, getting its water supply from a cistern." The first steam fire engine in Cincinnati, named the "Uncle Joe Ross," was stationed on Eighth street between Plum and Central avenue. The chief engineer reported April 1, 1854, "If any doubt remained of the practicability of this invention for protecting property from destruction by fire, it must now be removed. The triumphant success of this invention has so completely satisfied every one that has seen it in operation, not only as a means of greater security to property, but in point of economy beyond anything now in use." The practicability of this steam fire engine stimulated the citizens and insurance companies to raise money for another similar one, which early in 1854 was well-nigh completed. The council at that time had given authority to the chief engineer to order a third engine, but it was the judgment of the engineer that it was advisable to delay the contract until the second engine had been tried, as improvements might be suggested for the third machine. The following reminiscences were given in 1880 by one who recalled the days of the first steam fire engine in Cincinnati. He said : "I drove the team that hauled the first steam fire engine ever built to the first fire on which streams were played by steam power." Evidently he knew nothing of the London and New York experiments. "My brother worked in Miles Greenwood's foundry in Cincinnati, and I lived at Island Pond, Vermont. In May, 1852, I believe,. I went to Cincinnati to see him, arriving there Saturday evening. We were on our way to church Sunday morning, when the fire bells struck, and my brother said, 'Now we'll see what they'll do with the steam machine,' and he started for Miles Greenwood's shop, where the steam fire engine was. It was built by Greenwood, the first ever on wheels." This, of course, was an error. "There the engine stood, steam up, four large gray horses hitched to it, a crowd looking at it, and Greenwood mad because he couldn't get a man to drive the horses. You see all the firemen were opposed to his new invention because they believed it would spoil their fun, and nobody wanted to be stoned by them, and then the horses were kicking about so that everybody was afraid on that account. My brother says, 'Larry, you can drive those horses, I know.' And Greenwood said; `If you can, I wish you would,—I'll pay you for it.' My business was teaming. And just as I was, with my Sunday clothes on, I jumped on the back of the wheel horse, seized the rein, spoke to the horses, and out we went kiting. Miles Greenwood went ahead, telling the people to get out of the way, as the streets were full of people. The horses went on a fast run nearly the whole way, and when we got to the fire we took suction from the canal and played two streams on the building, a large frame house, and put the fire out. That was the biggest crowd I ever saw in my life, and the people yelled and shouted while some of the firemen who stood around the piano machines (hand fire engines) jeered and groaned. After the fire was out, Greenwood put on two more streams, and four were played. Then the city hired me to drive the four horse team with the steamer, paying me seventy-five dollars a month. It was a great, long, wide affair, with a tall heavy boiler, bigger than this room—and run on three wheels, two behind and one in front to guide it by. After a few weeks a fellow offered CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 69 to do my work for fifty dollars a month, and they turned me off and hired him. The second fire he drove to he was run over and killed." The leaders in the reform that brought about the change from a volunteer fire department and the procuring of the steam fire engine were particularly Miles Greenwood, Jacob Wykoff Piatt, James H. Walker and Joseph S. Ross. In 1854 Greenwood was chief engineer. The same year, the city council purchased a vacant lot on Sixth street, between Vine and Race streets for a building to be headquarters of the department. An alarm bell was placed upon the Mechanics Institute at that time. The expenses of the department for 185354 were seventy-eight thousand, four hundred and odd dollars. More than twelve thousand dollars of this amount was necessitated by the change to the paid system. At this time, in addition to the steam fire engine there were fourteen hand engine companies, two hook and ladder companies and one hose company. The salaries of men and officers amounted for the year to fifty-three thousand, six hundred and odd dollars. In that year there were one hundred and sixty fires. The loss at these was estimated at six hundred and eighty thousand nine hundred and odd dollars; three hundred and thirty thousand and odd dollars was covered by insurance. The change to the paid department did not come without serious opposition. Jacob W. Piatt, a prominent lawyer, with James H. Walker, both councilmen, brought the proposition before council. The council room at this meeting had in it a crowd of turbulent rough fellows who noisily exhibited their opposition. At meeting after meeting the proposers brought the matter up. Each time it was lost but each time by a smaller majority. The feeling became so bitter that Mr. Piatt was forced to go to the council chamber attended by a company of his constituents for his protection. At one time a crowd gathered before his house and burned an effigy of him amid groans and hisses. It was indeed the procuring of the steam fire engine that finally forced the paid department movement to success. When the engine had been tested and accepted it was recognized that it would be safe only in the hands of others than the volunteers. It was decided to organize a company of salaried firemen. To this end a committee was appointed. Council appointed Miles Greenwood as chief of the company and he accepted, without salary, and paid another man to look after his own business meanwhile. The ordinance of council arranged that members of the company were to be paid $60 each a year ; each lieutenant, $100; captains $150; pipemen and drivers $365; assistant engineers, $300; and chief engineers $1,000. In a biographical sketch of Miles Greenwood the writer says : "Mr. Greenwood became connected with the fire department in 1829, when there was but one hose company in the city, and was president of the association several times. In 1853 the first steam fire engine was brought out to a fire by a number of picked men under the command of Mr. Greenwood. It was well understood that the buildings had been fired by the members of the volunteer company, who were bitterly opposed to the introduction of steam engines, for the purpose of having an opportunity to smash it. Mr. Greenwood was soon surrounded by three hundred of these men, who were loud in their threats of vengeance. But 70 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY his cool courage and resolute will daunted the rioters, so that everything dwindled into a threat that he would never get an office after that. Two other fires occurred the same night. It will be remembered that the city council took little or no interest in the great change in the fire department which the exigency of the times called for ; and being determined to accomplish the work he had undertaken, he furnished fifteen thousand dollars of his own money, and obtained fifteen thousand dollars more from private citizens and insurance companies, who had confidence in the final success of the change. It was not until the change had been made that the council sanctioned it by paying the expenses attending it. Mr. Greenwood, however, had fully informed himself in regard to the will of the better class of citizens, and was determined to succeed with the moral support they rendered him. He removed his family from the city to Avondale, previous to the struggle, and for the first eighteen months only slept at home six nights ; and from his house on the corner of Race and Ninth streets answered every tap of the alarm bell. The council paid him one thousand dollars to attend to their business, and he paid one thousand, five hundred dollars for a person to take his place in his own business ; and to show that he was not actuated by mercenary motives, donated flip one thousand dollars to the Mechanics Institute. "After the steam fire engine became a fixed fact in the Cincinnati fire department, a deputation from the city of Baltimore came on to examine its workings and compare the paid and volunteer systems. On being questioned as to the points of difference, Mr. Greenwood's answer was characteristic, and as follows : '1st, it never gets drunk; and 2nd, it never throws brickbats ; and the only drawback connected with it is that it can't vote.' "As evidence that even the council were ultimately made sensible of the benefit accruing to the city from the services of Mr. Greenwood in this direction, we insert the following resolution : "Resolved, That the thanks of the citizens of Cincinnati are due to Miles Greenwood, chief engineer of the fire department, for the able and efficient manner in which he has discharged the duties of said office, bringing order out of confusion and saving property and life by systematized and well defined rules and regulations, and a personal supervision highly honorable to him, and immensely valuable to this city." A beautiful souvenir was presented to Mr. Greenwood, the inscription on which was as follows : "Presented to Miles Greenwood by the officers of the pay fire department, upon his retirement from the position of chief engineer of the department, as a tribute of their respect and esteem for his efficient services as a fireman, his bearing as an officer, and exemplary character as a citizen, for many years an active fireman, and the last two in organizing the present department, the best the world can boast of." A writer in "Cincinnati, Past and Present," said : "To Mr. Greenwood the Cincinnati fire department is mainly indebted for its efficient 'organization. The pay fire department, now in general use, is really his creation. From being a leading spirit in the old volunteer department, he saw the inevitably demoralizing tendencies of it upon the youth of the cities, and conceiving the idea of adopting steam as a motive power in the extinguishing of fires, he next determined to have a paid, rather than a volunteer, department. In this he met with a weight of CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 71 opposition, both in the city council and the volunteer firemen that would have completely discouraged a man of less determination of character and persistence. For three months after the organization of the paid fire department of the city, the council refused to recognize the change, or appropriate the money to pay off the men ; and during this time Mr. Greenwood advanced for this purpose fifteen thousand dollars to keep the men together by paying them regularly. Night and day he was constantly engaged fighting the opposition to the organization. He had no time to attend to his own business, but paid a man one thousand, five hundred dollars to attend to it for him. Eventually he triumphed over every difficulty, and today such a thing as a volunteer fire department is unknown in any city of the first class in Europe or America." But Greenwood did not fight this battle alone. James H. Walker, A. B. Latta and Piatt were behind him. Piatt and Walker fought for him in council and helped in every possible way. Latta, according to whose plans the pioneer engine was built, was of the firm of Shawk and Latta, while the engine was built in the shops of John H. McGowan. Latta had had experience in a cotton factory and then in the Washington Navy Yard, before he came to Cincinnati as an expert mechanic and became foreman of a machine shop. He made the first iron-planing machine used in Cincinnati. He built the first locomotive made west of the mountains ; this was the "Bull of the Woods," and was constructed for the Little Miami railroad. Latta was about thirty years of age when in 1852 he constructed the first steam fire engine in this city. He spent nine months upon it. It was tested January 1, 1853. He built in the next eight years about thirty engines which were used by the fire department of the chief cities of the country. Joseph S. Ross, after whom the first steam fire engine in this city was named, was a member of the council and was chairman of the committee on the fire department. It was he who closed the contract with Shawk and Latta to construct the first engine. The first and for a long time the only fire tower in Cincinnati was on the top of the Mechanics Institute. It had glass windows to give a view of the several parts of the city. There were on duty there day and night two watchmen, who relieved each other every six hours. Four glass globes, covered with red flannel, were used as signals. They were placed in, a huge, mast-like cylinder and moved by machinery. In daylight they appeared to be solid. When illuminated at night they shone out brilliantly. The watchman, on discovering a fire, announced its locality by hoisting the appropriate number of balls. He also gave the alarm by striking the huge bell at the other end of the roof of the building. The watchmen also, by means of a speaking tube, notified the firemen in the Gifts Engine House, next door, of the location of a fire. As other engines came past this engine house they also had the means of learning where they were to go. Cincinnati led in this great reform, while other cities still suffered from the old outworn system. Six months' experience of the new plan satisfied the majority of opponents. After one year, Mr. Greenwood said : "In the semi-annual report that I had the privilege to present to your honorable body, I could not refrain from congratulating the city council upon the triumphant success which had 72 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY crowned their efforts in the reform of the fire department, which the peace and good order of society so imperatively demanded ; the result of which, though scarcely six months had passed, the change for good was so manifest that soon the opposition of the most clamorous advocates of the old system were hushed into silence ; nor is the effect of the change now, after the first twelve months have elapsed, lees manifest or worthy your confidence. Under the present control the engine houses are no longer nurseries where the youth of the city are trained up in vice, vulgarity and debauchery, and where licentiousness holds her nightly revels. The Sabbath day is no longer desecrated by the yells and fierce conflicts of rival fire companies, who sought the occasion afforded by false alarms, often gotten up for the purpose of making brutal assaults on each other, our citizens, male and female, pass our engine houses without being insulted by the coarse vulgarities of the persons collected around them. The safety and security of our citizens are no longer trampled under foot by men claiming a higher law, under the license of the name of fireman, to commit all manner of excesses with impunity. The temptation for the youths of our city to follow fire companies and attach themselves to them, is entirely done away. For all these good results let me congratulate the city council, and all who have so manfully and disinterestedly labored for the reform." When in 1855 Mr. Greenwood felt that he had accomplished his work and retired from the position of chief engineer, Ferguson Clements was appointed in his place, with Enoch G. Megrue as assisstant. In 1857 Megrue succeeded to the chief position, which he occupied for more than twenty years, with great credit to himself and the respect and gratitude of the citizens. Seven steam fire engines were in charge of the department in 1858. In 186o there were eleven engines, with one hundred and fifty-one members, which numbers included officers, besides two hook and ladder companies. Only one hand engine was still in use, that in the Seventeenth ward, for local use. That year the mayor declared the Cincinnati fire department to be the most efficient in America. Chief Megrue stated: "At no period since the organization of the fire department has it reached so near perfection as now. As an achievement of human skill we point to it with pride, and in practical workings we have the attestation of an admiring world." At this time horseless. steam fire engines were put in service. In 1864 a new engine of this kind was procured for seven thousand dollars ; it was called the "John F. Torrence." In 1868 the "A. B. Latta," named for the maker of the first Cincinnati steam fire engine, was bought. In 1868-69 the expense of the department was two hundred and forty thousand five hundred and odd dollars. The people of Mount Auburn in 1861 made a request that a fire company be located in their vicinity. A new engine was accordingly bought and an engine house was placed on Webster street between Sycamore and Main streets. The mayor and the chief engineer had for several years advised the installation of the fire alarm telegraph system. The council at last issued an order to this effect. In 1865 a law was passed which gave council authority to procure the necessary money. In 1866 this system was installed by J. F. Kennard & Company of Boston. It cost for operation the first year twenty-five thousand CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 73 dollars and the second year twenty thousand, eight hundred dollars. Besides its uses for fire purposes it was utilized by the police. In 1868 this system was extended to Walnut Hills, Mount Adams, the west side of Mill Creek and the workhouse. As more suburbs were annexed, twenty-seven new signal boxes were put up in 1873. The fire alarm telegraph was first located at the corner of Sixth and Vine streets. B. B. Glass was the first chief operator. The first entry in the records of the Fire Alarm Telegraph Corp) of Cincinnati is as follows : "February 7, 1866, the Tower Watchmen were withdrawn from their posts of duty at six o'clock this evening at which time the Fire Alarm Telegraph was accepted and went into service. Between eight and nine o'clock the same evening a test alarm was turned in and sounded upon the bells from Box Six (6) which proved satisfactory to all concerned. The first alarm of fire under the Telegraph system was given from Box Twelve (12) February 9, at eight o'clock, p. m." At the great Chicago fire in 1871, part of the Cincinnati fire department was sent on and did much in aiding the department of that suffering city. In 1872 the epizootic disease was prevalent, and the affairs of the city, of the street railways and the fire department were seriously interfered with. While this state of things existed there were no large fires. At the few alarms that were given, the engines were hauled by men, in the old fashion. The Legislature in 1873 changed the whole organization of the department. It repealed the old laws and city ordinances that bore upon the fire department. The department was taken from the charge of the Council and put in the hands of a Board of Fire Commissioners. The members were appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the Council. The mayor appointed to constitute this board : P. W. Strader, president ; W. B. Folger, secretary ; Charles Kahn, Jr., Henry Hanna, George Weber and George C. Sargent. On the twenty-fifth of August, the Board organized. It did away with the offices of foreman and outside pipeman. It employed a sufficient force on full time and salary. The department was at this time made up of one hundred and forty-nine officers and men. There were eighteen steam fire engines, four hook and ladder companies, the fuel and supply wagons and the fire alarm telegraph corps. There were five first class engines, six second class and seven third class engines. All but one had been built in this city. In 1875 Chief Megrue stated that during the year 1874 the losses by fire were less by two hundred and forty thousand dollars than in 1854, though the population of Cincinnati had doubled in the meanwhile. On May 14, 1880, there occurred a fire at Glendale, fifteen miles from tile center of the city, which notably exhibited the efficiency of the Cincinnati fire department. Within forty-five minutes after the telegram asking for aid was filed at the Glendale office Chief Engineer Bunker was at hand with an engine and fighting the fire. The organization of the fire department was again changed in 1877, and was put in the charge of the Board of Police Commissioners. There was a pro- 74 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY longed dispute as to this act, known as the "Ransom Ripper Bill." A conclusion was reached for the time being by the appointment of Charles Jacob, Jr., as president, George W. Ziegler, Enoch T. Carson, Charles Brown and Daniel Weber as police commissioners. By the act of the general assembly, February 14, 1878, the law creating this board was repealed. Judge Moses F. Wilson of the polio court then appointed as fire commissioners, George C. Sargent, William. Dunn, C. J. W. Smith, George Weber and John L. Thompson. This board appointed Joseph Bunker fire marshal, and as assistants Lewis Wibey, Thomas McAvoy and Henry Schildmeyer, as Chief Megrue had resigned and insisted on his resignation being accepted. Megrue had been with the fire department more than twenty-five years, and had been at the head of the department for twenty years. His is one of the most notable and honorable names in the history of the paid fire department. Politics had entered toward the end of his service into the management of the fire department, and this fact had annoyed and grieved him. L. C. Weir in 1879 succeeded John L. Thompson on the board, and in 1880 John Mackey Jr., took the place of George Weber. When the term of C. J. W. Smith expired, Chris Kiechler became fire commissioner in his room. In 1882 there was held the Fire Chiefs Convention, and there were in attendance many of the most notable fire chiefs of the world. Among these was Captain E. M. Shaw of London. There were ninety-five chiefs present. On account of the bursting of a large amount of the hose at a fire at this time, the burning 0f the oil establishment of Charles E. Coffin, it was evident that sufficient funds were not being provided for the proper maintenance of the departments supplies. A private subscription was raised. Council made further appropriation. New hose was purchased. In 1882 Chris Kissinger took the place of William Dunn on the Board of Fire Commissioners. In 1883, J. M. Doherty succeeded George C. Sargent. In 1883 there was a great flood. The fire department was much interfered with. In the bottoms an engine was placed on a flat boat for the protection of that neighborhood. In 1884 Chief Bunker was killed by a collision of his buggy and a chemical engine while speeding to a fire. He had been in the department thirty years, and was an able officer. Lewis Wisbey became acting chief on the death of Bunker in September and was regularly appointed to this position November 28, 1884. In this year, Abe Furst was appointed to succeed L. C. Weir whose term had expired as a member of the board. An act was passed during this year allowing the fire appropriations to be increased from $250,000 to $300,000. Another act permitted a change of the regulations so that an applicant for membership must pass a medical examination. In 1886 a tournament of the old volunteer firemen was held. An association had been formed in 1869 of those who had been active members in the old volunteer department. The city publicly demonstrated for three days its enthusiasm for these men. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 75 In 1886 the Salvage Corps was organized. Herman F. Newman, who had been a fireman, became its head. In 1890 W. H. Hughes became chief in place of Lewis Wisbey, who resigned. In 1891 a Board of Fire Trustees took the place of the Board of Fire Commissioners. Mayor Mosby appointed Abe Furst, R. M. Archibald, James J. Faran, Jr., and John Goetz, Jr. In 1893 W. T. Perkins succeeded R. M. Archibald as fire trustee. J. A. Archibald took the place of W. H. Hughes as chief. In 1898 Faran was succeeded by William Rieker ; in 1899 Goetz was succeeded by Joseph M. Rice ; and in 1901 Perkins was succeeded by John Mackey, Jr. Abe Furst was reappointed in 1900. Mr. Faran in 1902 took the place of Rice. A parade of the fire and police departments was held October 3, 1895. A review by Governor McKinley and Mayor Caldwell was then held. General Andrew Hickenlooper was grand marshal for the fire department and Colonel Leopold Markbreit for the police department. The Firemens' Protective Association of Cincinnati is an organization for the relief of firemen, their widows and orphans. The firemen's pension fund provides pensions for disabled firemen and widows and orphans of firemen. The large and thoroughly equipped fire department of Cincinnati today is so vast and elaborate that an extensive treatment of it would require far more space than can be here given. There are the forty-seven fire companies; sixteen ladder companies ; two water tower companies ; three fuel and supply companies ; a tool wagon company ; an automobile company ; cistern and plug department ; a hose shop; fire alarm telegraph. In brief, Cincinnati has a thoroughly modern and efficient fire department. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. The Board of Health was organized by the Council in 1865. The first yearly report was submitted on March 1st, 1868. This board then consisted of : Charles Wilstach, mayor, and ex officio president of the Board ; Hugh McBriney, S. S. Davis, L. C. Hopkins, J. C. Baum, Daniel Morton, and John Hauck. Dr. William Clendenin was health officer, and George M. Howels clerk. The first orders of this board were sent out April 24, 1867. In less than a year after that date the Board sent out thirteen thousand and six hundred and twenty-four orders to be served by the sanitary police. The health officer in that year received seventeen thousand, three hundred and fourteen reports of nuisances. When notifications were sent by the board most of these nuisances were looked after. But the board brought one hundred and thirty suits and collected seventy-two fines. The act of the Legislature which had created this Board gave into its hands the medical relief of the poor of the city. During the first year of its existence there was a large number of people out of employment. A physician was selected 76 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY to look after the sick among the poor in each ward. As the general health that year was good, it was found that thirteen ward physicians were sufficient. The poor treated during the year were four thousand, four hundred and thirty one. The mayor in his next annual message stated that the board of health had rid the city markets of unwholesome meats and vegetables, prevented the sale of diseased cattle and decreased milk adulteration, as well as prevented the spread of "Texas cattle-fever." The death rate of the city was considerably lowered. In 1869, the Board of Health had the street-sweepings analyzed, and showed their utility as fertilizer. In 1870, the Council ordered the construction of public closets, under the care of the Board of Health. During a smallpox epidemic in 1872 the Board of Health made an inspection of the public schools, and as a result more than seven thousand children were vaccinated at the public expense. In 1872 eleven thousand, seven hundred and odd nuisances were abated. That year medical attention was provided for seven thousand, seven hundred and fifty odd cases among the poor. As it was apprehended that cholera might return at that time, a house to house inspection was made by the board. "Cries of Warning," printed announcements of the perils, were given out to housekeepers and landlords to the number of twenty-five thousand. In 1876 the schools were again examined. In 1878 bureaus of medical relief, sanitary inspection, markets and vital statistics were created as part of this board. In 1880 a police squad was detailed for sanitary service. The sanitary police in that year abated twelve thousand, four hundred and twenty nuisances, and made twenty-six thousand, seven hundred and ten inspections of premises. The health officer is Dr. Mark A. Brown ; sanitary superintendent Mischeal Lorentz, and assistant superintendent P. H. Goeddell. Of the Bureau of Finance, John J. Winner is clerk of the Board of Health and Joseph M. Ray is chief clerk of the Board of Health. Of the Bureau of Vital Statistics, E. Walter Evans is deputy registrar and William Kimmerling is assistant deputy registrar. Of the Bureau of Infectious and Contagious Diseases, the medical inspector is B. F. Lyle, M. D. (resigned), Henry Dietz is clerk, Joseph Wagner and Charles Ortman are sanitary specials. On the Bureau of Sanitary Inspection, Bernard Brengelmann is fumigator. There is in this bureau a chief clerk of the sanitary department, a clerk, and twenty sanitary officers. Of the Bureau of Dairy and Milk Inspection, J. Stewart, Hagen, M. D., is milk inspector, and there are seven assistant milk inspectors ; also a clerk, a legal clerk. There is a Bureau of Meat and Live Stock Inspection, of which Harry C. Winnes, D. V. M. is meat inspector, and there are seven assistant meat inspectors. There is a Bureau of Fruit and Vegetables Inspection, of which George Lebrecht is fruit inspector. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 77 On the Bureau of Bacteriological and Microscopical Examinations Frank Lamb, M. D., is chemist and bacteriologist and Harry F. Truesdale is laboratory assistant. Oscar W. Stark, M. D., is physician of the tuberculosis dispensary, with four nurses. The Bureau of Medical Relief has a physician in each of the twenty-four wards. In the Bureau of School Hygiene, Miriam Schaar, M. D., is chief nurse, with two nurses cooperating. In 1909 there were six thousand, three hundred and three deaths, including three hundred and eighty-two still births, a decrease in the mortality of five hundred and twenty-eight compared with the preceding year. Using the last figures of the census department for the year 1910 the population of the city is 364,463. According to these figures the death rate for 1909 was 16.24. The births outnumbered the deaths, six thousand, eight hundred and ten a birth rate of 18.68 per thousand. This was an increase in birth rate compared with the preceding year from 15.70 per thousand. The explanation is that births are being better reported by physicians, and the rate of 1909 was based upon a more nearly correct estimate of the population. The work in the laboratory has increased almost 33 and a third per cent over that done the preceding year, 7,483 examinations having been made. A careful perusal of Dr. Lamb's report will show a marked improvement during the year in the milk supply, both chemically and bacteriologically. Dairy conditions are decidedly improved, as is evidenced by reports of samples of milk examined. The vigorous system of prosecution that was followed during the latter half of 1909 had a salutary effect and adulteration is much less frequent. Part of the good effect of this policy is lost through delays in having cases tried. The city solicitor's force is overworked, and arrangements should be made whereby the legal representative of this department could give first consideration to its business. During 1909, one of the largest dairies in the United States marketing its milk in this city, had its herd tuberculin tested. A large percentage of the cows were found to be diseased, and a large number of these were slaughtered, subject to government inspection. At present this herd is under the care of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, and the milk supply from this source is probably as good as can be obtained from any dairy in the Cincinnati district. The Health Officer and Chief Milk and Dairy inspector are carrying on a system of education among the dairy men, and each year shows a material increase in the number of tuberculin tested herds. The milk commission of the Academy of Medicine aids in this work. During the summer months certified milk, at nominal price, is sold or furnished free to people with infants in the congested districts through the milk stations established by this department. The work being done is as efficient as can be hoped for considering the number of men employed. Inspection work outside of Hamilton county can only be done after the force has been increased. 78 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY As to school inspection, the nurses follow up the recommendations of the assistant health officers in the homes of the people, give treatment in the schools, accompany the patients to hospitals when they need operations, etc. Fifteen public schools were served in 1909, and the results obtained show the importance of extending this work as rapidly as possible to all of the public, parochial and private schools in the city. Lack of funds interferes with this work at present. Only forty-six deaths were due to typhoid fever, the lowest mortality from this cause for years. The campaign for a more thorough reporting of tubercular cases resulted in 1,058 cases being reported during the year, with 850 deaths from this cause. This showed a marked improvement in case reporting. The work in the tuberculosis dispensary contributed materially to this result. During that year there were reported 400 cases of measles, with two deaths ; 426 cases of diphtheria, with 38 deaths ; 388 cases of scarlet fever, with 14 deaths; 136 cases of whooping cough, with 21 deaths ; 307 cases of chickenpox, with no deaths ; 253 cases of small pox, with one death ; cerebro spinal meningitis, 4 cases, with I death ; mumps 16 cases ; erysipelas, 91 cases, with 32 deaths. Inspection in the Meat Inspection Service is limited to those slaughter houses not engaged in inter-state trade, to the hotels, restaurants, retail butcher shops and markets. The force is too small for thorough work, and steps should be taken to widen the field of usefulness of this department. There is but one man employed at present in the Bureau of Fruits and Vegetables. The total expenditures for the year ending December 31, 1909 were $71,878, general administration, sanitary services and supplies, quarantine, and inspection of food products. Out door relief Medical Relief of the Poor ; in 1909, there were 4,032 new patients, 1,898 old patients ; total patients treated, 5,930. Total visits by physicians 12,116. Patients discharged 3,709. Sent to hospital 289. Patients remaining, 1,897. Total cost of medicines, $509. The deaths in 1890, with the smaller population of that period, were 6,441 and in 1909 were 5,921. In this year, there was a total of 1,519 fumigations made; for diphtheria 393 for scarlet fever 340; for consumption 540; for smallpox 201. Miscellaneous 45. The modern management of the tuberculosis situation recognizes three distinct aspects of the subject which must receive due consideration if the work of stamping out consumption is to be successful. One is the education of public opinion in harmony with the tuberculosis campaign. Another is the isolation of the consumptive who is helpless and is in urgent need not only of medical attention, but of the ordinary necessities of life, such as food and healthful surroundings. The third and last, but by no means the least important feature of the tuberculosis situation is the care of the ambulant case or the treatment of the individual patient who is not sick enough to require hospital or sanitary treatment, but not well enough to be without medical attention and advice, more particularly if the patient is poor. The work in the dispensary during 1909 was in keeping with the triple purpose of modern tuberculosis-therapy. Endeavor was made to teach patients cor- CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 79 rect principles of personal hygiene in keeping with the indication offered by the disease and by the exigencies of sanitation arising from the infectious character of tuberculosis. In addition, clinical work was clone such as was required by the patients attending the dispensary, suitable cases being sent to the branch hospital, and other cases being cared for by visiting nurses. Special care is given to the children who come to the dispensary, not only because the prospects in these cases are usually better, but also because children are apt to propagate the modern teaching in regard to tuberculosis more than any other class of patients. The nurses of the Bureau of School Hygiene visited nine schools, and two kindergartens. They made 984 visits, saw 3,216 new cases, and 7,392 old cases. They discharged 2,437 cases, took to the dispensary 343, obtained glasses for 212, had 137 operated on, and held with parents 246 consultations. They looked after cases of pediculosis 936, scabies 125, ringworm 154, miscellaneous skin diseases 281, defective vision 506, other eye conditions 36, adenoids and enlarged tonsils 463, ear conditions 106, wounds 57, contagious diseases 69, non-contagious diseases 449, miscellaneous 507. Treatment for 105 was given at home, and for 445 at school. Visits were made at home 1,688, at dispensary 332, and at operations 40. Recommendations were made to family physician 557, to childrens' clinic 423, to other dispensary 664, and to charitable institutions 76. Investigation of the Odontological Society in examinations of the mouths of children of the Sixth District School were made on 920; there were only 85 without defect ; only 414 were accustomed to clean their teeth. The condition of the mouth of 238 was good ; of 481 fair, and of 200 bad. 606 had no family dentist. 76 had irregular teeth, and 112 had permanent teeth missing. Dr. Frank H. Lamb, chemist and bacteriologist, made a total of examinations in the laboratory 7,483, an increase of 1,582 over the previous year. The diphtheria examinations numbered 1,181. Sputum samples numbered 1,400. Widal examinations were 364. There were 2,571 samples of milk examined. Part of these samples were from shippers, and out of 707 only 119 were below legal standard. In 1908 the per cent of milk shipped into Cincinnati below legal standard was 46.2 per cent, while during 1909 it was only 16.9 per cent. Most of this adulteration was by water. The milk shipped into Cincinnati still, ( 1911) shows a very large per cent of adulteration, but there has been a marked improvement. This improvement is due to the active campaign made by the government against shippers who live in other states and ship milk into Cincinnati, and over whom the local department has no jurisdiction. There are a number of producers who live in Ohio and are reached through a cooperation of the state and city authorities. When the state authorities take this matter up and prosecute offenders within the state the percent of adulterated milk shipped into Cincinnati will fall much lower than it is at present. There were 1,672 wagon samples examined, and of these 526 were below legal standard. The percentage below standard in 1908 was 59.3 per cent and in 1909 was 40.4 per cent, though about three times as many samples were examined in the latter year as in the former. 80 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY Most of the milk sold in Cincinnati is distributed by large corporations who separate the milk and decombine it in proportion required by law, and do not give any excess of fat or total solids to the consumer. These samples run slightly below legal standard by the Babcock method in use, but by chemical analysis would be at legal standard or above. But these are classified as adulterated and below legal standard. Of 1,672 samples examined, 34 were found below legal standard by chemical examination. This is but two per cent, and shows the marked improvement that has taken place in our milk supply. The ordinance requiring milk to be delivered in bottles has eradicated one of our greatest milk evils ; that is the store with the open jar of milk, cooled with a lump of ice. It has also saved the department considerable expense, as convictions of store keepers for selling adultered milk was almost impossible under our laws. The Bureau of Sanitary Inspection reported 14,893 nuisances and abated them all. It inspected 4,412 houses. The Bureau of Meat and Live Stock Inspection inspected and condemned $25,967 worth of live and dead stock, hogs, cattle, sheep and calves. Carcasses inspected at time of slaughter, passed for human food and branded, and meat stores, etc., inspected, totals 39,703. The Bureau of Fruit and Vegetables Inspection condemned $8,993 worth of fruits and vegetables. There was a total of inspections of commission houses, auction houses, stores, licensed venders, vessels, railroads, market stands, markets, ice houses, of 47,103. THE WATERWORKS. This is one of the best watered portions of the world. Rainfalls are regular and abundant. Wells and cisterns can be readily formed anywhere in this region. The city stands on the bank of a river, and other rivers are in the immediate vicinity. Nevertheless the pioneers had some difficulties as to suitable water supply, and the city has had great problems to solve as to pure and wholesome water. The early settlers had no difficulties as to water supply except for drinking purposes, as the river provided abundantly. For drinking uses there were several natural springs, but these were neither large nor constant,' and the river was utilized to some extent even for this purpose. "Kilgour's Spring" was one of the largest, and it was used by many in the neighborhood. It was on the spot where stands the Little Miami depot. Tan-yards seem to have been speedily planted near the several important springs. One was Deacon Wade's on Congress street, between Pike and Butler streets ; another was in the valley of Deer Creek at the end of Harrison street ; Hunt's was just above Court street. Robert Shaw, known as the "water witch," whose business was well digging, dug the first well an the spot where Cincinnati now stands. This was in 1791. Shaw wrote and illustrated his own life in a crude way, and a copy of this book is in the Cincinnati Public Library. Shaw says this well was at Fort Washington, CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 81 "where I dug the first well that ever was in Cincinnati, and by my directions the well in the garrison was finished, besides a number of other wells which I laid off, and which have been finished since my leaving there, which is a clear demonstration of the infallibility of the forked rod. For I do maintain that there is no danger of failing in procuring water, provided a man digs to the depths prescribed by the man who carries the rod, and understands the efficiency of it." In 1793 a Scotchman named David McCash came here from Kentucky. During that year, McCash's oldest son invented a method of conveying water to the houses of such citizens as needed a supply. His cart was a barrel on two poles. A cross-piece midway on the poles held them together, while pegs kept the barrel in position. The front portion of the poles served as shafts for a horse. Cist in "Cincinnati in 1851" reverts to the early water supply, and says : "The first settlers of Cincinnati drank from the springs in the hillside, along and below the present line of Third street, and did their washing in the Ohio river. As the population increased individuals for their greater private convenience sank private wells. Still a large portion of the inhabitants obtained their supply from the river and there are many still living who associate toting water by hoop and bucket with their reminiscences of a washing day. "The summer of 1802 was very dry, and most of the springs failed. Among the rest was the one which supplied Deacon Wade's tan-yard. Without water the business could not go on—not a dray in the settlement—what was to be done? An inventive genius, James McMahan, came to their relief ; with an axe and augur he repaired to the adjoining fields, cut a couple of saplings, pinned cross-pieces, and upon them secured a cask. To this dray, by aid of a yoke, or wooden collar, he geared his bull, and with this "fixin' " the water was furnished, and the business of the yard kept in operation. "In 1806 when the citizens numbered seventeen hundred, the first move for supplying them with water was made by William, better known as "Bill," Gibson, rigging a cask upon wheels, and undertaking the furnishing of water as a part of his business. The facility this water cart afforded was as great a desideratum and as marked an epoch in the history of the progress of the comforts of the town as any subsequent improvement for furnishing the city with water. "In 1817 Jesse Reeder built a tank on the bank of the river near Ludlow street. By means of elevators worked by horse power he lifted the water into this tank and thence sold it to water carts. "In 1816 the town council of Cincinnati granted the Cincinnati Woolen Manufacturing company the exclusive privilege of laying piper through the streets, lanes and alleys of the town for the purpose of supplying the citizens thereof with water, conditioned "that on or before the fourth day of July, 1819, the pipe should be laid and water conveyed to that part of the town lying south of Third street, commonly called the 'Bottom,' and to that part of the town called the so that it may be delivered three feet above the first floor of James Furgeson's kitchen, on or before the second day of July, 1823. "In 1818 the Woolen Manufacturing Company, with the assent of the town council, transferred all their right, interest and privilege of supplying the inhabitants of the town of Cincinnati with water to S. W. Davies, and the legislature granted said Davies and his associates an act of incorporation by the name of the Vol. II-6 82 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY Cincinnati Water Company, with the privilege of creating a capital not exceeding seventy-five thousand dollars. Mr. Davies purchased the property now occupied by the engine house and reservoir, and commenced preparing for furnishing the city with water. A reservoir forty by thirty, and six feet deep, bottom and sides planked, was excavated on the hillside, a little south and west of the present site. Two frame buildings were erected on the bank, one on the north and the other on the south side of Front street. A lifting pump, placed in the building south of Front street, lifted the water from the river into a tank in the building on the north side of Front street. From this tank the water was forced up the hill into the reservoir. The pipes, pumps and machinery were of wood, and worked by horse power. "In 1820, there being at the time no improvements between Broadway and the reservoir, the wooden pipes leading into the town were laid along the hillside, through Martin Baum's orchard, down to Deer Creek ; on the west side of the creek, through what at the time was Baum's fields, now Longwood's garden, and other lots to Broadway ; thence along Fifth street to Sycamore, and down Sycamore to Lower Market. Here the first fire-plug—a wooden pent-stock—was placed, and from it the first water lifted by machinery, from the Ohio river, and passed through pipes for the use of citizens, flowed on the third day of July, 1821. "In 1824, Mr. Davies purchased the engine and boiler of the steamboat Vesta ; and Mr. Joseph Dickinson, after having repaired and fitted the engine up in the frame building south of Front street, attached by means of crank and lever two lifting pumps, of six-inch cylinder, and two force pumps of seven inch cylinder and four-feet stroke. With these the water was lifted from the river into a tank in the same building, and forced from this tank, up the hill, four hundred feet through five inch iron pipe, and three hundred and fifty feet of gumwood pipe into the reservoir. The trees for these pipes were cut in Deacon Wade's woods, near the corner of Western row and Everett streets. "In 1827, Mr. Davies sold his interest in the waterworks to Messrs. Ware, Foote, Greene and others when, in accordance with the act of incorporation, a company organization took place. At this time there were about seventeen thousand feet of wooden pipe, five hundred and thirty hydrants, and less than five thousand dollars income. "In 1828, the engine was repaired and the entire pumping apparatus remodeled by Anthony Harkness. After this the water was thrown through a twelve inch iron pipe into a new stone reservoir, one hundred feet by fifty, and twelve feet deep. This reservoir was enlarged from time to time, until its dimensions equalled three hundred and fifty feet in length by fifty feet in width, and twelve feet deep, containing one million, two hundred thousand gallons of water. This reservoir, having served its day, has now given way to make room for a new one, enlarged to meet the present demand. "In 1833, Mr. Harkness made and put up a new engine and pumping apparatus, which is now in use (1851)." To go back to the earlier period : it is said that a man named Port, who had been a Hessian soldier in the Revolution, followed for some time the occupation of supplying water to the citizens of this town. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 83 An advertisement in the Spy of June, 1801, inserted by Avery and Fithian, stated "they have completed their well of excellent water, at a heavy expense, and that four dollars per year will be expected from every person or family using the water. The well will have to be kept in order, and supplied with buckets, rope and windlass, and cleaned out at least once a year,"—hence the charges. In addition there were other privately owned wells from which water could be procured at a regular charge. There were also publicly owned wells at Lower Market street, between Main and Sycamore streets, one on Main street, and one near the bank of the Miami Exporting Company ; these were maintained by assessments. In 1815, Dr. Drake states there were some not very satisfactory springs on the edges of the town ; also that others were on the sides of the hills. But none of these were adequate to supply the town. Several wells had been digged. He notes that those east of Broadway were from thirty to fifty feet in depth ; some on the northwest parts of the hill twenty to forty feet ; those in the Bottom from forty to sixty feet. West of Broadway, between Third and Sixth streets it was necessary to go from seventy to one hundred feet for water. Cisterns were common. But a large part of the water used was brought from the river in barrels, and often this had to be allowed to settle because of the impurities. Housekeepers preferred it for all uses except drinking. According to the grant of 1816 to the Cincinnati Woolen Manufacturing Company, that Company had for ninety-nine years the exclusive privilege of supplying the city for a yearly payment of one hundred dollars ; they had also the right to free water at fires. The company was obliged to put a fire plug in each block where the water was introduced and to fill public cisterns or reservoirs without charge. In a biography of Samuel E. Foote, the writer, John P. Foote, says in regard to the Cincinnati waterworks : "At an early period in the history of Cincinnati, when its future growth and prosperity appeared to be fully established, the need of a regular supply of water was seen to be necessary, not only for family purposes but for supplying the wants of manufacturing establishments, which were beginning to be requisite for the supply especially of those heavy fabrics, the transportation of which from the seaboard imposed taxes too heavy to be borne by the early emigrants to our western towns and farms. This want, a most energetic and accomplished man of business, Colonel Samuel W. Davies, undertook to supply. He raised a substantial building of stone and brick, at a low water mark of the river, for the accommodation of the lifting and forcing pumps, necessary to convey the water of the river to a reservoir, on a hill immediately north of the building. This reservoir was about three hundred feet above low water mark, and was near the eastern boundary of the city, and higher than its highest levels. He laid wooden pipes for carrying the water through the principal streets of the city, but its rapid increase soon showed that such pipes were insufficient to supply even a small portion of its requirements. The growth and extension of the city being chiefly to the westward, iron pipes, and those of larger calibre than would have been necessary had the growth of the city been upwards on the river; as had ever been the course of our river towns, were needed. 84 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY "Colonel Davies, when he had devoted all his means—his capital and his credit—to the work, found that he had but made a commencement and there was a necessity for a much larger amount of capital than any individual in the west, at that time, could furnish. He, therefore, proposed to put the works into the hands of a joint stock company, and obtained a charter for the formation of such a company, which he endeavored with his characteristic energy, to organize. He found, however, the vis inertia of the citizens in regard to public improvements, proportionate to their efforts for the increase of their individual fortunes. As in the case of the canal stock, there was found a sufficient number of citizens who considered it a public duty of others to carry out Colonel Davies' undertaking, which was the extent of their public spirit in this case. The prevalence of this opinion, however, did not produce the desired practical result, and the plan was on the point of being abandoned for the want of funds. Under these circumstances the following named gentlemen undertook to unite with Colonel Davies and carry on the works ; these were David B. Lawler, William Greene, Samuel E. and J. P. Foote, and N. A. Ware, who, however, soon sold his share in the establishment to George Graham and William S. Johnston. These gentlemen constituted the "Cincinnati Water Company." Samuel E. Foote was appointed its secretary, and served in that office during its existence, without compensation. In this office he brought into exercise that knowledge and capacity for business by which he was always distinguished. All his accounts and plans are models of correctness and adaptation to the interests of the institution: The company made extensive improvements, substituting iron for wooden pipes, in those streets that required the largest mains, establishing improved pumps, enlarging the reservoirs, and generally adapting the progress of the works to that of the city. They, however, became weary of well doing in the cause of the public, for which their returns in money were not enough, and in reproaches and abuse for demanding payment rents, too much, for the comfort of their lives. They, therefore, made an offer of the establishment to the city, for a sum which,—judging from the cost of subsequent improvements,—was less than half what it would have cost to begin and carry forward the works to that state in which they were. The offer was submitted to a vote of the citizens, and accepted, though similar, and, perhaps, more favorable, offers had been previously rejected. The water rents have been increased fifty to one hundred per cent since the sale, but they are perhaps not now too high, though as long as they were much lower, and collected by a private company, they were intolerably oppressive.." When the Woolen Manufacturing company sold out their rights in the water privilege to Davies, he paid them the amount of their expenditure on the works. In July, 1820, the requirement§, of the ordinance had been fulfilled as to supplying water in the Bottom and on the Hill. As Mr. Davies received little response from citizens in the way of interest in his plans, he offered to sell out to the city at less than cost. The vote was adverse. Then the water company was formed, as stated above. In 1832 the works were again offered to the city but rejected by vote. Improvements by the owners continued, and in 1834 the company had six thousand, eight hundred feet of iron piping and about twenty-five miles of wooden piping. In 1836 it had two miles of iron piping. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 85 The company, finding itself losing steadily, offered in 1839 to sell to the city at half the cost. A vote was taken and the offer was accepted. The city paid $300,000 for the system, and issued bonds for the debt. At the time the system had twenty thousand, four hundred and twenty-three feet of iron piping, and one hundred and seventeen thousand, eight hundred and forty-three feet of wooden piping. The diameter of the iron piping was three or four inches and of the wooden, two and one-half inches. In 1833 a new engine and pumping apparatus had been placed by Mr. Anthony Harkness, and these lasted for many years. Five times the vote had been taken on city ownership of the waterworks. In 1824 only twenty-five men voted for the purchase while two hundred and ninety-four declared against it. Three hundred and three voted for and seven hundred and seventeen voted against the change in 1832. In 1836, nine hundred and fifty-six for and one thousand, two hundred and seventy-four against. In 1839 the vote was seven hundred and twenty-eight for and five hundred and fifty-three against. This bonded debt for the waterworks became due January 15, 1865, and was then redeemed. The original hydraulic water works were in the upper part of the city. The walls of the building were on rock foundation, about ten feet above low water mark of the river. The walls were eight feet thick at the bottom and five feet at the top, thirty-five feet above the foundation rock. A brick building, of three stories stood on this. The total height from the rock was ninety feet. There was a well in the rock for water that ran in through the canal from the main channel at the lowest river stage. Water from this well was pumped by two pumps into a cistern above high water mark. The water from this was forced through the main pipe to a reservoir on the hill. This was one hundred and fifty-eight feet above low water mark. It was about thirty feet above the highest part of the city, except the hills. This water was then carried from the reservoir by means of two series of wooden pipes to the main part of the city. About five or six hundred families and several manufacturing establishments were supplied. During the first year of the city's ownership of the water works it received only thirty-nine thousand, four hundred dollars. The expenses for thirteen years were greater than the income. The city took possession of the waterworks June 25, 1839. The officers of the old organization continued to operate the plant until September 15th. The directors held a meeting in the council room September 7, 1839, Edward Woodruff, president and E. Hinman, Oliver Lovell, A. H. Ewing, N. S. Hubbell and Jonah Martin being the members. Isaac Eveleth was chosen secretary and Samuel H. Davies engineer, with salaries of one thousand dollars a year each, and an office at Fourth and Walnut streets with rent paid. The rates for water per family were from ten to sixteen dollars a year. The charge for a bath room was three dollars and for each hose one dollar. S. L. Tatem was elected engineer of the water works in April 1842, according to an act of the legislature submitting the choice of this official to popular vote. The management in 1846 was placed in the hands of three members of 86 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY the council, but another change was soon made and control was given in charge of a board consisting of J. G. Rust, Nicholas W. Thomas, D. F. Meader, Griffin Taylor and A. Sawyer. In 1847, by act of the legislature the control was put in the hands of a board to be elected annually. The first board was composed of Griffin Taylor, James C. Hall and Nicholas W. Thomas. In 1846 T. R. Scowden became engineer. Isaac Eveleth was secretary 1839-40. J. F. Irwin filled this position 1840-41. John F. Keys became secretary in the spring of 1841 and served until 1850. In 1847 E. Hinman was chosen superintendent, and held this position until 1852. In 1852 Lewis Warden became superintendent and in 1853 be was chosen as engineer, and so remained until 1857. James Cooper became superintendent in 1854 and held this position until 1857, when Warden succeeded him in that position. S. W. Irwin became superintendent in the latter part of 1857 and Americus Warden engineer. In 1859 R. C. Phillips succeeded as superintendent and George Shield as engineer. Phillips held his position until 1861, when John Earnshaw took his place. George Shield continued as engineer until 1867. In 1842 Nicholas Longworth had manifested real public spirit in the interest of the water works which at the time was not appreciated. He declared that a reservoir should be placed upon some higher site and he offered ground on Mount Adams for a reservoir and park at five hundred dollars an acre, claiming that this was far below its value, which was plainly the case. His proposal was declined, with the assertion that the price was much too high. In 1846 a committee called upon Mr. Longworth, and he proposed to make a rate for the land at one third less than he would sell to a private party. These men declared fourteen hundred dollars an acre "for broken hill land too poor to raise sauer kraut upon entirely too high." They did not even think it worth while to report to council the result of their interview with Mr. Longworth. Mr. Longworth was naturally displeased at the inference that he was trying to sell his land above value while posing as a public spirited citizen. He wrote the council that the city could enter upon possession of the lots without settling a price or paying interest. He attached to this arrangement the condition that when he might sell the neighboring ground the city would pay within five hundred dollars per acre the price he obtained at private sale, less the taxes. Mr. Longworth asserted that within five years the ground would rise to five times the price he asked for it. He said that in five years he would let council know its value. The rise in value was so rapid that in less than three years the value per acre of what he had offered at $1,400 was ten thousand to fourteen thousand dollars. Mr. Longworth warned the council that within a few years the people would be asking why sites on the hills had not been purchased when land was low in price, and that then it would be said he had offered the city a bargain which had been rejected by men who did believe in his disinterestedness. In 1846 Messrs. Yeatman and Shield were authorized to build an engine to take the place of old machinery, as there was not enough pumping power. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 87 In 1850 another engine was built by Harkness and Son. A new reservoir was constructed in 1849 by Mr. Scowden. This was constructed above the ground and made of dressed limestone. It was the only reservoir of the city until 1875. In 1854 a reserve engine, for use in the emergency of the failure of one or both of the others, was built by Powell and company. In 1854-55 a large extension of distributing pipes was made and numerous hydrants were added. In 1856 there were sixty three miles of pipes and nine thousand hydrants. In 1860 Superintendent Phillips estimated the works as worth two millions and a quarter dollars. At that time the reservoir capacity was five million gallons, and the maximum pumpage thirteen million gallons. The water rent receipts were about one hundred and seventy thousand dollars, and the annual expense fifty-three thousand dollars: In 1860, Mr. George Shield, then the engineer, submitted plans for a single huge engine, and the contract was arranged. It was to be on the Cornish plan and was to cost eighty-seven thousand, seven hundred and odd dollars. It took five years to build it, and the cost was much above the estimate. It was started November 15th, 1865, and served the city for more than twenty years. In 1852 the authorities had employed a famous chemist, Dr. John Locke, Sr., to analyse samples of water from the Ohio river at various points, and from the two Miamis, from the Whitewater and Mad rivers, and from a spring on Sycamore Street hill, in the neighborhood of Cincinnati. Comparisons were also made with the Croton water of New York city. The tests showed the superiority of the Ohio river water. It was declared to contain a trifling fraction of a grain more solid matter to the gallon than the Croton water. The use of the Ohio river water was therefore approved. A "water supply commission" was appointed by the council in 1864, made up of Mayor Harris, Colonel Gilbert the city civil engineer, the trustees of the waterworks, and four members of the council, and these were authorized to investigate and report concerning a supply of pure water for the city. In accordance with this arrangement the commission in 1865 had James P. Kirkwood, of New York, a noted hydraulic engineer, examine the rivers, creeks and springs in the neighborhood of Cincinnati, as well as rocks and soil, in their bearings upon the water supply of the city. He reported in favor of the Ohio river water and his report was approved. Kirkwood recommended and submitted plans for new waterworks, using the Ohio river as a source, the water to be taken from the river at Pendleton. This latter portion of the report was not acceptable to a majority of the committee. The commissioners made a report in favor of the Ohio river water and recommended a new reservoir. This report was adopted by the council. Negotiations were opened with Joseph Longworth, son of Nicholas Longworth, for purchase of the "Garden of Eden," now part of Eden park for the reservoir and for park uses. This was a most desirable location for a reservoir, a natural basin and two hundred and more feet above low water mark of the river and more than sixty feet above the overflow pipe of the old reservoir. 88 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY The negotiations with Joseph Longworth were executed January, 1866. Work was soon afterward begun and was rapidly pushed to completion. A curious incident occurred in the fall of 1866 which showed that the foul waters of Deer Creek, which were held back at its mouth by the current of the Ohio, were pumped into the reservoir for drinking purposes. A distillery on Deer Creek was burned and large quantities of whiskey mixed with its waters. Shortly afterwards the presence of alcohol was plainly detected in the water from the reservoir. Efforts were at once made to prevent the eddy in Deer Creek by means of sunken barges and a stone wall extending into the river from the upper bank of the creek. Reservoirs for the supply of the suburbs Walnut Hills and Mount Auburn were planned in 1868. Two tanks of iron were erected on Mount Auburn at Vine street and Auburn avenue. The pumping works were placed in the valley at Hunt and Effluent Pipe street, now Elsinore avenue. Water began to be distributed from the Mount Auburn tank in September 1869. The construction of the Eden park reservoir was begun January, 1866, the site being a ravine containing thirteen acres bounded on three sides with precipitous hills. At the southwestern end a wall was built and a deep fill made, the wall with eight arches. This wall is forty-eight and one half feet in width at the base, while its height is one hundred and twenty feet. Its least width is eighteen and one half feet; the top is supported by arches and is more than twenty-five feet wide, and designed for a wagon and foot way. The wall of the reservoir between the chambers is three hundred and seven feet in length, sixty-seven and one half feet in height, thirty feet wide at the base and ten feet wide on the top. In 1872 the upper basin was completed, but as the pumping engines were not ready water was not pumped into it until October of 1874. In 1875 two Scowden engines and the upper basin were in service. The lower basin was finished in 1878. In 1879 a main was placed from the old reservoir to the Eden park reservoir. The total expense was about four and a half million dollars. The middle or Eden Park service was finally ready in November, 1877. The subdivisions were : the low service supplied by the Third Street Reservoir, one hundred and seventy-two feet: above low water mark ; the middle service supplied by the Eden park reservoir, two hundred and thirty-three feet above low water mark ; and the high service supplied by the Mount Auburn tank, four hundred and ninety-two feet above low water mark. The governor of Ohio, by an act of April, 1896, in June of that year appointed as commissioners of waterworks for Cincinnati, Maurice J. Freiberg, Charles M. Holloway, Leopold Markbreit, Dr. Thomas W. Graydon and August Hermann. When Dr. Graydon resigned in the latter part of that year, William B. Melish took his place. This commission was authorized to arrange for a new water supply for the city. They were to prepare plans, make surveys, acquire real and personal property by purchase. They were to build waterworks not to exceed six million, five hundred thousand dollars in cost. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 89 Mr. Hermann was chosen president of the board. Delay Was caused by suits to test the validity of the act. The Supreme court sustained the act in February, 1897. Five engineers were appointed, and these advised the placing of a low pumping station at the Markley farm or the California site. They recommended the construction of settling reservoirs, looking into the purification of the Ohio river water, and further details. Gustave Bouscaren was selected as chief engineer. He brought before the board four problems. It was recommended that the new works should have a daily capacity of eighty to ninety million gallons ; that the pumping station should be placed at California; that no high level reservoirs be made ; and that the high pumping station should be on the west side of the Miami. A committee composed of a representative from each of the following organizations, the Commercial club, the Optimist club, the Board of Trade, the Chamber of Commerce, the Young Men's Business club and the Manufacturers club, were permitted to meet with the trustees, see their plans and take work in their councils. George H. Benzenberg of Milwaukee, and Charles Hermany of Louisville, were appointed consulting and advisory engineers, July, 1897. December, 1897, the board presented plans including a pier in the channel near the Kentucky shore opposite California, a tunnel under the Ohio at that point, a low service pumping station, a double line of force mains, a system of subsiding reservoirs, a system of filtration and a clear-well basin connecting by conduit with the high service pumping station on Eastern avenue ; from this last mains were to run to the various distributing points at Eden park. July 1, 1909, the board of trustees, commissioners of waterworks, turned over the new pumping works and filtration plant to the board of public service. The distribution department reported in 1910, that the number of gallons of water for which' the department had assessed and collected the rates was fifteen billion, four hundred and eighty-nine million, nine hundred and two thousand, nine hundred and fifty, or forty-two million, four hundred and thirty-eight thousand and ninety gallons per day. This represented about two-fifths of the capacity of the pumping department. The department has two settling plants, reservoirs and a filtration plant. In the filtration works more than sixteen billion gallons of water are annually treated, with more thon two thousand tons of sulphate of iron and more than nine hundred tons of lime. Cincinnati now congratulates itself on having magnificent waterworks of the most approved and modern kind. Not only is the filtration method used, but sterilization is being applied. During the three years of the operation of the new eleven million dollar waterworks system, it is shown that typhoid fever has been reduced to a minimum ; Cincinnati's death rate from typhoid fever in 1910 was only 5.7 per cent per 100,000 people. The twenty-one deaths in the city from typhoid fever in 1910 are set against 239 deaths in 1906, the last year of the operation of the old waterworks. There has also been a falling off of deaths from other intestinal diseases. CHAPTER IX. THE RIVER. LA BELLE RIVIERE MAINLY USED BY THE EARLY IMMIGRANTS-FIRST PACKET BOATS MADE REGULAR TRIPS BETWEEN CINCINNATI AND PITTSBURGH EVERY FOUR WEEKS-BARGEMEN AND FLATBOATMEN-PERILS OF THE RIVER AND "LINGO" OF THE BOATMEN-THE "MUSKINGUM" CLEARS FROM CINCINNATI FOR LIVERPOOL IN 1844-TRAFFIC ON THE RIVER IN 1869 AMOUNTED TO $160,000,000 NINE-FOOT LEVEL AND FERNBANK DAM. La Salle is credited with the discovery of the Ohio. The first description we have of this river is in the journals of Celeron and Father Bonnecamps, now in the archives of the Department of the Marine in Paris. June 15, 1749, Monsieur Celeron de Bienville, with a company of Frenchmen and Indians, including Father Bonnecamps, set out on the St. Lawrence in twenty-three canoes at La Chine, near Montreal. Passing into the lakes, they arrived at the Chautauqua portage, July 16th. Next day they began the ascent of Chautauqua creek and on July 24th they entered Chautauqua lake. Passing down the lake they entered Conewango creek. Thence they went to the Ohio. Celeron stated : "On the 29th at noon I entered 'La Belle Riviere.' I buried a plate of lead at the foot of a red oak on the south bank of the river Oyo and of the Chauougon, not far from the village of Kanaouagon, in latitude 42 deg., 5 min., 23 sec." The burying of the lead plates was, according to an old French custom, indicating a .claim of the king to the lands drained by the streams. Celeron on this voyage buried six lead plates. In addition, at the same time, he fastened to the nearest tree a plate stamped with the king's arms. The expedition passed down, tarrying now and then at Indian villages, planting a plate here and there, placing the fourth one at the mouth of the Muskingum river, in Ohio, where Marietta now stands. On the 15th of August the fifth lead plate was "buried, at the foot of a tree, on the southern shore of the Ohio and the eastern shore of Chiniondaista." This was at Point Pleasant, West Virginia. This plate was found in 1846 and is preserved by the Virginia Historical society. August 26th they reached "Riviere la Blanche," probably the Little Miami. They remained at this point two days, waiting for their scout to bring in a band of Miamis who were to meet Celeron. "Finally, on the morning of the 31st, they appeared, followed by their women, their children and their dogs. All embarked, and about 4 o'clock in the afternoon we entered Riviere a la Roche, after having buried the sixth and last leaden plate on the western bank of that - 91 - 92 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY river, and to the north of the Ohio. I have buried on the point formed by the right shore of the Ohio and the left of the Riviere a la Roche, a plate of lead, and attached to a tree the arms of the king.” The river was the Great Miami. On September 1st the canoes started to ascend the Great Miami on the way to Quebec by way of Lake Erie. About the end of the eighteenth century began immigration by water into the Northwestern Territory, which includes Ohio. For more than a decade immigrants came thick and fast, from Pennsylvania, Virginia and Connecticut chiefly, but some came from nearly all the states. Apart from the relatively few speculators in land, most of these were home-seekers, with little means. A considerable proportion of these immigrants from the East floated or rowed down the Ohio to their chosen homes along its banks, or made their way up the several tributary rivers, seeking a location. It was comparatively a simple matter to come down the Ohio, but it was a task to ascend the smaller rivers, and indeed to return to Pittsburgh, or to any other far away point on the big river, was one of much difficulty and time. With the boats of the immigrants, laden with their scanty supplies, began the commerce of the Ohio. The Ohio river was the great road into the west. It played a vast part in the opening and development of the western country. The trails of Indians and buffalo led to the river and so did the main roads of the western country. Rivet travel became a chief form of traffic and one full of interest and romance. Two hundred and fourteen thousand square miles are drained by the Ohio river. The annual rainfall in the whole Ohio river region is twenty and a half trillion cubic feet. The Ohio river is about one thousand miles in length from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to the mouth in the Mississippi. The cities and towns on the banks of the Ohio and its chief tributaries now contain a population of more than two millions. Yearly shipments down the Ohio by steamer average more than 7,000,000 tons, not counting coal. The Ohio river, in its relations to the settlement and development of the middle west is comparable to any of the famous rivers of history. For ages the river had had upon its bosom the canoes of the Indians. When the War of the Revolution was over, the settlement of the valley of the Ohio began. Then the merchant fitted out boats, which were large and fortified. His craft was suitable for a cargo of merchandise and for passengers as well. Passengers were permitted to work their, way and were expected to help in case of attacks from Indians. June 1787, James Wilkinson loaded a flatboat with tobacco and went down the Ohio and Mississippi to New Orleans, where he sold his stuff at a profit. In New Orleans he procured a license from the Spanish governor : "This is to certify that James Wilkinson is granted permission to import on his own account to New Orleans, free of duty, all the productions of Kentucky. He is to furnish tobacco to the king of Spain at $9.50 cwt. (Signed) Miro, Gov. of Spanish Provinces." This is ,the first recorded shipment of Kentucky goods. In that early day, the Ohio and Mississippi rivers were already infested with dangerous characters. Some of these men had been honest boatmen but had been degenerated by their wild life. In the unsettled country between Louisville CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 93 and the mouth of the Ohio these ruffians preyed upon passing boats. Cave-in-Rock and Cash river were two of their worst haunts. When immigration began toward the close of the 18th century these would-be settlers in general followed the roads that led to Pittsburgh and its neighboring towns. From Pittsburgh or Brownsville or Wheeling the settlers made their start by water for the westward homes. Traders were to be found at the several chief starting points on the upper Ohio, Pittsburgh, Old Fort Redstone, Wheeling, ready to sell the departing settlers supplies and boats. At these settlements, there were boat yards, where were constructed the flatboats, keelboats, arks and barges of the kind used at that time. A boat of thirty or forty feet in length could be obtained at about one dollar a foot. These boats were boarded on the sides and partially roofed. A pump, rope and fireplace cost from ten to fifteen dollars additional. In addition to the boats purchased or made by immigrants to convey themselves and families to their destinations there were a few plying back and forth carrying freight, bringing in flour, bar iron and castings, tin and copperware, glass, millstones, nails, brandy, and such articles as the settlers needed or desired, and taking up the Ohio cotton, furs, tobacco, and the like. There were several firms of Cincinnatians with barges running between this place and New Orleans. These carried into this region sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, dry goods and the like, and took to the southern markets whatever the Cincinnati region produced and had for sale. The Centinel of the Northwest Territory, January II, 1794 carried the first advertisement in regard to river traffic between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh. "OHIO PACKET BOATS. "Two boats, for the present, will start from Cincinnati to Pittsburgh, and return to Cincinnati, in the following manner, viz.: "First boat will leave Cincinnati this morning at eight o'clock, and return to Cincinnati, so as to be ready to sail again in four weeks from this date. "Second boat will leave Cincinnati on Saturday, the 3o30thnstant, and return to Cincinnati as above. "And so, regularly, each boat performing the voyage to and from Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, once in every four weeks. "Two boats, in addition to the above, will shortly be completed in such a manner that one boat of the line will set out weekly from Cincinnati to Pittsburgh, and return to Cincinnati in like manner. "The proprietors of these boats having maturely considered the many inconveniences and dangers incident to the common method hitherto adopted of navigating the Ohio, and being influenced by a love of philanthrophy and a desire of being serviceable to the public, has taken great pains to render the accommodations on board the boats as agreeable and convenient as they could possibly be made. "No danger need be apprehended from the enemy, as every person on board will be under cover, made proof to rifle or musket balls, and convenient port holes for firing out. Each of the boats is armed with six pieces, carrying a pound 94 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY ball; also a good number of muskets and amply supplied with plenty of ammunition, strongly manned with choice hands, and the master of approved knowledge. "A separate cabin from that designed for the men is partitioned off in each boat for accommodating ladies on their passage. Conveniences are constructed on board each boat so as to render landing unnecessary, as it might, at times, be attended with danger. "Rules and regulations for maintaining order on board, and for the good management of the boats, and tables accurately calculated for the rates of freightage for passengers and carriage of letters to and from Cincinnati to Pittsburgh; also a table of the arrival and departure to and from the different places on the Ohio, between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, may be seen on board each boat, and at the printing office in Cincinnati. "Passengers will be supplied with provisions and liquors of all kinds, of the first quality, at the most reasonable rates possible. Persons desirous of working their passage will be admitted, on finding themselves subject, however, to the same order and direction, from the master of the boats, as the rest of the working hands of the boat's crew. "An office of insurance will be kept at Cincinnati, Limestone, and Pittsburgh, where persons desirous of having their property insured may apply. The rates of insurance will be moderate." There was published in Pittsburgh at the opening of the nineteenth century, a booklet called "The Navigator," "the trader's useful guide in navigating the Monongahela, Allegheny, Ohio and Mississippi rivers," which furnished needed information. The editor gave advice as to the purchase of boats and the best kind to be procured. "Flat and keelboats may be procured at New Geneva, Brownsville, Williamsport, Elizabethtown, M'Keesport, on the Monongahela, and perhaps several places on the Youghiougheny; at Pittsburgh, Beaver, Charlestown, and Wheelen (sic.), Marietta, Limestone, Cincinnati, the Falls, &c., and at most of the above places vessels of considerable burden are built and freighted to the Islands, and to different ports in Europe, their principal cargoes consisting of flour, staves, cordage, cotton, hemp, &c." Spring and fall were the best seasons for navigation on the Ohio. The Navigator stated : "When provided with a good boat and a strong cable of at least forty feet long there is little danger in descending the river in high freshes, when proper care is taken, unless at such times as when there is much floating ice in it. Much exertion with the oars is, at such times, generally speaking of no manner of use; indeed it is rather detrimental than otherwise, as such exertion frequently throws you out of the current which you ought to continue in, as it will carry you along with more rapidity, and at the same time always take you right. By trusting to the current there is no danger to be feared in passing the islands as it will carry you past them in safety. On the other hand, if you row, and by so doing happen to be in the middle of the river on approaching an island, there is great danger of being thrown on the upper point of it before you are aware, or have time to regain the current. In case you get aground in such a situation, become entangled among the aquatic timber, which is generally abundant, or are driven by force of the water among the tops or trunks of other trees, CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 95 you may consider yourself in imminent danger ; nothing but the presence of mind and great exertion can extricate you from this dilemma. "As frequent landing is attended with considerable loss of time and some hazard, you should contrive to land as seldom as possible; you need not even lie by at night, provided you trust to the current, and keep a good look-out. When you bring to, the strength of your cable is a great safe-guard. A quantity of fuel and other necessaries, should be laid in at once, and every boat ought to have a canoe along side, to send on shore when necessary. "Though the labor of navigating this river in times of freshet is very inconsiderable to what it is during low water, when continual rowing is necessary, it is always best to keep a good look-out, and be strong handed. The wind will sometimes drive you too near the points of the islands, or on projecting parts of the main shore, when considerable extra exertion is necessary to surmount the difficulty. You will frequently meet with head winds, as the river is so very crooked that what is in your favor one hour will probably be directly against you the next, and when contrary winds contend with a strong current, it is attended with considerable inconvenience and requires careful and circumspect management, or you may be driven on shore in spite of all your efforts. One favorable circumstance is, that the wind commonly abates about sunset, particularly in summer. "Boats have frequently passed from Pittsburgh to the mouth of the Ohio in 15 days, but in general 10 days from Pittsburgh to the falls is reckoned a quick passage. "Descending the river when much incommoded with floating ice should be avoided, particularly early in the winter, as there is a great probability of its stopping your boat ; however, if the water is high, and there is an appearance of open weather, you may venture with some propriety, if the cakes are not so heavy as to impede your progress, or injure your timbers ; the boat will in such case make more way than the ice, a great deal of which will sink and get thinner as it progresses, but on the other hand, if the water is low, it is by no means safe to embark on it when anything considerable of ice is in it. "If at any time you are obliged to bring to on account of ice, great circumspection should be used in the choice of a place to lie in ; there are many places where the shore projecting to a point throws off the cakes of ice towards the middle of the river and forms a kind of harbor below. By bringing to in such a situation, and fixing your canoe above the boat, with one end strongly to the shore, and the other out in the stream sloping down the river, so as to drive out such masses of ice as would otherwise accumulate on the upper side of your boat, and tend to sink her and drive her from her moorings, you may lie to with a tolerable degree of safety. . . . "The above observations are more particularly applicable to the Ohio; the following apply to the Mississippi, and point out the greatest impediments and the most imminent dangers attending the navigation of this heavy-watered and powerful river. These are, 1st, the instability of the banks ; 2nd, planters, sawyers and wooden islands. "Planters are large bodies of trees firmly fixed by their roots in the bottom of the river, in a perpendicular manner, and appearing no more than about a 96 - CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY foot above the surface of the water in its middling state. Sawyers are likewise bodies of trees fixed less perpendicularly in the river, and rather of a less size, yielding to the pressure of the current, disappearing and appearing by turns above water. Wooden islands are places where by some cause or other large quantities of drift wood, has through time been arrested and matted together in different parts of the river." "The Navigator" proceeds at length to give advice as to the best modes of meeting these difficulties. Such were some of the conditions that the emigrants had to meet in making their way to the new settlements along the Ohio. The early settlers along the Ohio had from 1790 on until the era of steamboats, various kinds of boats in use. There were the canoe, the pirogue, the keelboat, barge, brig, schooner, galleyboat, batteau and dug-out. Of these the ones in common use in early days on the Ohio were the canoe. the pirogue and the batteau. The canoe was made from bark. The pirogue was pushed with poles. The batteau or barge was a square box. The canoe could go either up or down stream. The pirogue could be sent up stream only with hard labor. The barge was only usable going down stream. The canoe and the pirogue were light-weight craft, though large ones could carry twenty men. The barge was for freight. Up until about 1785 these three kinds of boats practically were the only ones in use on the Ohio. In canoes the cargoes of valuable furs were brought down the various tributaries and carried up the Ohio to Pittsburgh. Some of the canoes could carry large loads. When in 1770 Washington made a trip down the Ohio he embarked at Pittsburgh, October l0th, "in a large canoe with sufficient store of provisions and necessaries, besides Dr. Craik and myself, to wit : Capt. Crawford, Joseph Nicholson, Robert Bell, William Harrison, Charles Morgan and Daniel Rendon, a boy of Captain Crawford's." But it was on barges that the armaments and stores were transported to the various forts in the valley, that indeed made such forts possible. When Pittsburgh and other towns on the upper Ohio grew and a market was thus opened for the products of the lower valley the keelboats came, the first boats on the Ohio capable of going readily up stream as well as down. The keelboat was long and narrow, about fifteen feet by fifty, and pointed at both ends. There were "running boards" from end to end, on either side. The main part of the boat was under roof. Such a boat would carry thirty or forty tons of freight. From six to ten men were needed to force it up stream. Each man was equipped with a long pole. Half the crew were on either side the boat. They set their poles at the head of the boat, brought the end of the pole to their shoulder, bent over, and walked on the running boards to the stern. At the captain's order they returned quickly to the head for a new start. The American Pioneer states : "In ascending rapids, the greatest effort of the whole crew was required, so that only one at a time could shift his pole. This ascending of rapids was attended with great danger, especially if the' channel was rocky. The slightest error in pushing or steering the boat exposed her to be thrown across the current, and to be brought sideways in contact with rocks which would mean her destruction. Or, if she escaped injury, a crew who had CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 97 let their boat swing in the rapids would have lost caste. A boatman who could not boast that he had never swung or backed a chute was regarded with contempt, and never trusted with the head pole, the place of honor among the keelboat men. It required much practice to become a first rate boatman, and none would be taken, even on trial, who did not possess great muscular power." On account of their narrowness the keelboats were able to pass up and down the tributaries of the Ohio. Thus markets were reached that otherwise would have been inaccessible. The greater part of the traffic on the Ohio in early days was by barges and flatboats. The flatboats were also called "Kentucky broad horns," or Kentucky boats. These barges were huge, covered boats. They were pointed, and capable of carrying forty or fifty tons of freight. The services of thirty to fifty men were required to manage one. They were propelled up stream by -poles, oars, sails and by towing with ropes from the shore. Audubon describes the barges at length : "We shall suppose one of these boats under way, and, having passed Natchez, entering upon what were called the difficulties of their ascent. Wherever a point projected so as to render the coarse or bend below it of some magnitude, there was an eddy, the returning current of which was sometimes as strong as that of the middle of the great stream. The bargemen, therefore, rowed up pretty close under the bank, and had merely to keep watch in the bow lest the boat should run against a planter or sawyer. But the boat has reached the point, and there the current is to all appearance of double strength and right against it. The men, who have rested a few minutes, are ordered to take their stations and lay hold of their oars, for the river must be crossed, it being seldom possible to double such a point and proceed along the same shore. The boat is crossing, its head slanting to the current, which is, however, too strong for the rowers, and when the other side of the river has been reached, it has drifted perhaps a quarter of a mile. The men by this time are exhausted, and, as we shall suppose it to be 12 o'clock, fasten the boat to a tree on the shore. A small glass of whiskey is given to each, when they cook and eat their dinner, and after resting from their fatigue for an hour, recommence their labors. The boat is again seen slowly advancing against the stream. It has reached the lower end of a sandbar, along the edge of which it is propelled by means of long poles, if the bottom be hard. Two men, called bowsmen, remain at the prow to assist, in concert with the steersman, in man, aging the boat and keeping its head right against the current. The rest place themselves on the land side of the footway of the vessel, put one end of their poles on the ground and the other against their shoulders and push with all their might. As each of the men reaches the stern, he crosses to the other side, runs along it and comes again to the landward side of the bow, when he recommences operation. The barge in the meantime is ascending at a rate not exceeding one mile in the hour. "The bar is at length passed, and as the shore in sight is straight on both sides and the current uniformly strong, the poles are laid aside, and the men equally divided, those on the river side take to their oars, while those on the land-side lay hold of the branches of willows or other trees, and thus slowly propel the boat. Here and there, however, the trunk of a fallen tree, partly lying on the Vol. II-7 98 - CINCINNATI - THE QUEEN CITY bank and partly projecting beyond, it, impedes their progress an requires to be doubled. This, is performed by striking into it the iron points of the poles and graff-hooks, and so pulling around; it. The sun is now quite low, and the barge is again, secured in the best harbor within reach for the night, after having accomplished a distance of perhaps fifteen miles. The, next day the wind proves favorable, the sail is set, the boat takes all advantages, and meeting with no accident, has ascended thirty miles,—perhaps double that distance. The next day comes with a very different aspect. The wind is right. ahead, the shores are without trees of any kind, and the canes. on the bank are so thick and stout that not even the cordelles can be used. This occasions a halt. The time is not altogether lost, as most of the men, being provided with rifles, betake themselves to the woods and search for, the deer, the hares or the turkeys that are generally ,abundant there. Three days may pass before the wind changes, and the advantages gained on the previous five days are forgotten. Again the boat proceeds, but in passing over a shallow place, runs on a log, swings with the cur. rent, but hangs fast with: her lee side almost under water. Now for the poles. All hands are on deck, bustling, and pushing. At length, towards sunset, the boat is once more afloat, and is again taken to the shore where the weary crew pass another night. "I could tell you of the crew abandoning the boat and cargo and of numberless accidents and perils, but it is enough to say that advancing in this tardy manner, the boat that left New Orleans on the 1st of March, often did not reach the Falls of Ohio, Louisville, until the month of July, sometimes not until October; and after all this immense trouble, it brought only a few bags of coffee and at most one hundred hogsheads of‘ sugar. Such was the state of things as late as 1808. The number of barges at that period did not amount to more than 25 or 30 and the largest probably did not exceed one hundred tons burden. To make the best of this fatiguing navigation, I may conclude by saying that a barge which Came up in three months had done wonders, for I believe few voyages were performed in that time." The flatboats were the ones used by the immigrants, as this kind of boat was for down stream only. The usual flatboat was about forty feet in length, twelve ,feet wide and eight feet deep. The bottom was flat. The whole was square in shape. Six oars were used. The boat was roofed. Two of the oars were of about thirty feet in length and were called the "sweeps." Two men were required for each of the "sweeps.". The steering oar, used at the stern, was, blade and all, forty or fifty feet in length: The "gouger" was a small oar at the prow, for .helping in steering in swift water. The old flatboats were called "Kentucky'.' and "New Orleans" as most of these had Kentucky and New Orleans as their destinations. The immigrant, anxious for a start from somewhere on the upper Ohio, had to buy or build a flatboat. Frequently, several families united and traveled together on one flatboat.' Such voyagers always had on board a tin horn to make known their coming or to announce their whereabouts in fogs. After the flatboat had played its part as a conveyance for immigrants, it be- came later a ready means of carrying produce down the river. This traffic continued up to the time of the Civil war. CINCINNATI—THE QUEEN CITY - 99 When the flatboat had reached its destination and the cargo had been discharged it was the universal custom to dispose of the material of the boat for lumber, while the boatmen made their way homeward on foot, or purchased mules or ponies for the trip. The returning boatmen, when it was possible, traveled homeward in companies, as the way was infested with outlaws. The houseboats of the early period were called "arks"; these were square, flat bottomed, forty feet by fifteen. The sides were six feet in depth ; there was a board roof and a fire place. Four men could manage an ark ; no sails were used, but the arks went with the currents. In the first half of the last century, many men were engaged in the business of rafting logs down the river. These rafts were often of great size, more than one hundred feet in length and from fifty to sixty feet in breadth. Oars were used to some extent. A cabin large enough to afford accommodations for the men was built in the center of the huge raft. The "galley" was in use to a limited extent. The galleys had covered decks and oars. On most of the river craft sails were used at times and to some extent. Regular sailing vessels had of course a considerable place in the river traffic and the export business. Sailing vessels were built at Pittsburgh, Wheeling, and other places from about 1790 onward. Some of these vessels went to the West Indies, some to Atlantic ports and some crossed the ocean. Archer Butler Hulbert, in a book on the Ohio River and its Tributaries, says: "Let us glance at the first generation of Ohio rivermen ; those who knew these waters before and during revolutionary days. At the outset it is clear that their tasks are as strange to us as the sights upon which their eyes feasted and the sounds which day and night were sounding in their ears. They were engaged in the only trade known in the valley then,—the fur trade. At about midsummer, or a little earlier, the fur trade of the entire Ohio basin focused at the mouth of the Monongahela for transportation to Philadelphia and Baltimore, or on the lower Ohio for shipment by canoe down the Ohio and Mississippi. When the curtain of actual history arose on the Ohio river, the fur traders formed the motley background in the drama in which Celeron, Contrecoeur, Villiers, Washington and Cist stood out clearly in the background. Celeron found them here and there in 1750 and sent them back with a sharp letter to Governor Dinwiddie. Indeed it was these first rivermen who floated on the Ohio in canoes laden with peltry who brought on apace the Old French war. Nominally, of course, it was that quota of one hundred families With which. the Ohio company promised to people its two hundred thousand acre grant between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, which alarmed the Quebec government; but in reality it was the Virginia and Pennsylvania fur traders in whose canoes thousands of dollars worth of beaver skins were being kept from the St. Lawrence. From village to village these traders passed, securing from* the natives their plunder of river and forest. In their long canoes the packs were carefully deposited, and payment was made in goods,. of which ammunition and firearms were of most worth. Though these were the first rivermen, they as frequently came by land as by water. But, when in their canoes, they were the first to ply these western waters. . . They knew islands which have long since passed