CHAPTER III ARCHAEOLOGY OF OHIO Evidence of a very early occupation of Ohio territory has been discovered in all the principal river valleys of the state by exploring expeditions sent into the field by the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society. These explorations have been very fruitful in studying the migrations of the various cultures and the five or more separate and distinct cultures, now known to have occupied Ohio territory during prehistoric times, are readily differentiated. Three of the five cultures are outstanding and readily recognized by the imperishable artifacts found in the mounds and village sites of each culture. One of the three cultures occupied the northern and northeastern part of the state and is clearly allied to the Iroquoian of historic times. The artifacts found in old village sites have a close relatiOn to known prehistoric sites in the State of New York and Canada. The other two cultures occupied the western, central and southern part of Ohio and were contemporaneous in their occupation of the territory. The casual student would not expect to find two prehistoric cultures occupying the same territory and only a few miles apart so radically different in degree of civilization. However, this is true as demonstrated by the finding in the sites of each of certain objects pertaining unmistakably to the other, attained no doubt in the course of common contact, either through exchange, barter or conquest. One of these cultures occupying this territory I have named, for our convenience in studying the cultures, Fort Ancient Culture, after Fort Ancient, the largest prehistoric earthwork in Ohio, and no doubt the , metropolis of this culture. They came into the Ohio Valley from the southwest, as evidenced by their artifacts and their only domestic animal, namely, the Indian dog, found in old sites far into the southwest. Dr. Frederick A. Lucas, Director, American Museum of Natural History, informs us after examining the bones of the dog found in one of the villages of this region that one may find the remains of this dog in practically all of the prehistoric villages leading to the southwest and doubtless this great culture group came into the Ohio Valley from this direction. The Fort Ancient Culture group is further characterized by living in small villages adjacent to streams or springs where the water supply was always adequate to their needs. The villages appear to have been rather carelessly laid out, yet with a semblance of narrow passageways or streets. On either side of the street were tepees, constructed of poles and no doubt covered with skins or bark. Within these domiciles and usually near the center were the fireplaces, made in the form of a basin, of puddled clay, and repaired with this same material when needed. The fireplaces served to warm the tepees in winter as well as to cook their food. These rude homes show evidence of use as a place of abode ; the sleeping quarters and the place where the arrowpoint maker sat and chipped out his arrowpoints, for upon the floors have been found his bone chipping tools, arrowpoints finished, others unfinished, hundreds of flint chips and pipes filled with charred tobacco. The query naturally comes to one, how were these artifacts of primitive man so carelessly lost ? Practically all the village sites have been raised above the surrounding surface from six inches to two feet. This - 25 - 26 - HISTORY OF OHIO was clone by carrying in soil and covering over the floor of the tepee, as it always seemed easier for primitive man to cover up than to clean up. The costumes of this primitive man in Ohio were no doubt made from skins of the wild animals he killed for food. He also had a fabric or cloth woven from bast fiber which he made into clothing as quantities of this cloth in the charred state are frequently found with burials. The amount of clothing no doubt varied from practically nothing during the hot weather to heavy garments made of furs of animals killed for food during the cold seasons. The men, women and children of this culture were profusely fond of ornaments and practically all burials will bring to light necklaces, bracelets, pendants and beads made of shells and bones of animals and birds, especially the large, hollow, strong bones of birds like the eagle, heron, crane, wild goose and wild turkey which were manufactured into beads and tubes used in making large strings, frequently eight to nine feet in length. The Fort Ancient Culture people were also great agriculturists as evidenced by quantities of charred corn found in the subterranean storehouses. The storehouses were cistern-like pits very often five to six feet deep and three to four feet in diameter. The pits were lined with bark and when the corn was gathered and husked it was stored in regular order in the storehouses. Often other products were stored with the corn, such as beans, dried plums and native nuts of all kinds. This culture has a great variety of implements for the most part made of bone and horn. The fish hook is perhaps the most interesting and resembles the hooks of today, minus the barb. It is usually made from a wing bone of some large bird. The awls are numerous and for the leg most part made of leg-bones of the wild turkey, although the heavy awls are frequently made of the ulna and metapodial bones of the deer and elk. Needles are in evidence practically in all tepee sites. They are from five to ten inches in length, usually curved, sharpened at one end with a small eye at the other. The report of the explorations of the Baum Village site—a Ft. Ancient Culture site—located along Paint Creek, Western Ross County, Ohio, will be of interest to the student of the early history of the state, as the site, upon examination, proved to be a fine example of this culture. The Baum Prehistoric Village site is situated in Twin Township, Ross County, Ohio, just across the river from the small borough of Bourneville, upon the first gravel terrace of Paint Creek. The Paint Creek valley is drained by Paint Creek, a stream of irregular turbulence, flowing in a northeasterly direction, and emptying into the Scioto River, south of Chillicothe. The Valley, at the site of this village upwards of two miles in width, is surrounded on the east and west by high hills which are the landmarks of nature, but little changed since the days of the prehistoric inhabitants. Spruce Hill, with steep slope covered with a dense forest, towers above the surrounding hills on either side. The top of this hill is made a veritable fortress by an artificially constructed stone wall, enclosing more than 100 acres of land. This fortress would no doubt furnish a place of refuge to those who might be driven from the extensive fortifications in the valley below, which are in close proximity to the mounds and village of those early people. Looking to the south and east from the village site, one can see lofty hills rising in successive terraces, no longer covered with the deep tangled forest, but transformed by the woodman's axe, and now under cultivation, producing the golden corn, which is our inheritance from primitive man who inhabited the Valley of Paint Creek many centuries ago. The village extends over ten acres or more of ground, which has COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 27 been under cultivation for about three-quarters of a century. Almost in the center of this village, near the edge of the terrace to the west, is located a large square mound. This mound and the- earthworks which are directly east of it, have been known since early times as the landmarks of the early settlers in this section of Ross County. The mound was first described by Squier and Davis in 1846, in their "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," page 57, where they give a description and drawing of these works. HoWever, Squier and Davis do not mention the fact that a village was present, nor that they knew of the village, as is shown by their description. "This work is situated on the right bank of Paint Creek, fourteen miles distant from Chillicothe. It is but another combination of the figures composing the works belonging to this series, just described ; from which, in structure, it differs in no material respect, except that the walls are higher and heavier. It is one of the best preserved works in the valley ; the only portion which is much injured being at that part of the great circle next to the hill, where the flow of water has obliterated the wall for some distance. The gateways of the square are considerably wider than those of the other works—being nearly seventy feet across. A large, square, truncated mound occurs at some distance to the north of this work. It is 120 feet broad at the base, has an area 50 feet square on the top, and is 15 feet high. Quantities of coarse, broken pottery are found on and around it. A deep pit, or dug hole, is near, denoting the spot whence the earth composing the mound was taken." This description, though meager, attracted the attention of the Bureau of Ethnology, and they sent a field party, under the direCtion of Mr. Middleton, to explore the mound, and I herewith quote from the twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1890 and 1891. "The mound was composed for the most part of clay, mottled considerably with black loam and slightly in some places with patches of a grayish, plastic lime. Cross trenches were run due north and south and east and west, respectively. The breadth of these at the side was from five to six feet, but as they penetrated inward they widened gradually, so that at the center the excavation became 13 feet in diameter. Considerable lateral digging was done from these trenches to uncover skeletons and other indications appearing in their sides. "Two series of upright postmolds, averaging five inches in diameter equidistant ten inches, and forming a perfect circle 26 feet in diameter, constitute a pre-eminent feature of this mound. Within these circular palings the mound was penetrated systematically by thin seams of fine sand, sagging in the center and averaging one foot apart. Resting upon the natural black loam at the bottom, timbers averaging eight inches in diameter radiated from the center, and in the south and west trenches were noticed to extend continuously to the posts. These timbers were detected, for the most part, by their burnt remains and also by the molds of dark earth in the yellow clay, produced by the decomposition of wood. Directly over these timbers was a horizontal line of decayed and burnt wood, but mostly decayed, averaging half an inch thick. The upright postmolds of the lower series were very distinct and measured five feet in vertical height. In one was found a small sliver of what appeared to be black walnut. Several of them contained the burnt remains of wood, and in many of these instances the black bark was clinging to the sides. "Separating this from the superstructure was a thin, sagging streak of burnt clay. Here and there upon its surface scant traces of black wood ashes were seen, while a small quantity of white bone ashes lay scattered upon its western border. This burnt streak overlaid a thin sand seam, below which it seems it could not penetrate. The postmolds of the superstructure consisted of a double row, the outer one being uniformly directly over the lower series in a vertical line, and separated from the latter entirely around the circle by a solid line of gravel. The 28 - HISTORY OF OHIO two rows of the upper structure averaged eighteen inches apart. Both might have extended originally above the surface of the mound, since they were discovered between 1 1/2 and 2 feet beneath the surface, which had been considerably plowed. Horizontal timber molds a little smaller in diameter, filled, in places, with charcoal, could be distinctly seen lying against the side of each line of posts at the points shown in the figure. These appear to have been cross beams or stays used for bracing purposes. In the eastern trench a gap, 3 feet wide and 2 inches deep, was noticed by the absence of postmolds in both upper and lower series. "All the skeletons discovered were in the area inclosed by these posts. The skeletons unearthed were all in a remarkably good state of preservation. None of them could have been intrusively buried, for the stratification above them was not disturbed. All excepting Nos. 15, 16 and 17 lay upon one or another of the thin seams of sand. "With skeleton No. 1 a bone implement was found at the back of the cranium, and an incised shell and fragments of a jar at the right side of it. With No. 3, which was that of a child about ten years old, a small clay vessel was found five inches behind the cranium. At the left hand of skeleton No. 8 was a shell such as is found in the sands of Paint Creek. A bone implement was at the back of the cranium of No. 9. With skeleton No. 11, were found a lot of small semi-perforated shell beads, and two bone implements directly back of the cranium. By the right side of the cranium were the perfect skull and jaws of a wolf, and beneath these were two perforated ornaments of shell. In the right hand was a shell, such as is found in the creek near by, while in the left was a pipe fashioned from stone. "At the right of the feet of this skeleton was the extremity of an oblong ashpit, about 4 feet long and 2 feet broad and 1 foot 10 inches in depth. It was filled with white ashes which were evidently those of human bones, since none but human bones could be identified. In these ashes and compactly filled with them, was an earth pot. It lay at the right of the feet of skeleton No. 11. It was lifted out of the ashes with great care, but the weight of its contents and its rotten condition caused it to break in pieces before it could be placed upon the ground. Numerous other pieces of pottery of a similar character were found in these ashes, and it is not improbable, from the indications, that all these ashes were originally placed in pots before interment. A perforated shell disk, two inches in diameter, and a lump of soggy sycamore wood were gathered from the ashes. Neither wood nor shell bore any signs of having been burnt. "Skeleton No. 15 lay seven feet deep and a half foot below the general burnt streak. It was originally covered with a wooden structure of some kind, for the cores of two red cedar timbers were resting lengthwise upon the body and the burnt remains of probably two others could be plainly seen on each side, placed parallel to those upon the body. This red cedar was still sound, but the white wood which envelopes the red cores seemed to be burnt entirely to charcoal. The indications are that these timbers were originally 1 foot above the body, for the earth to that extent over the whole length of the body was very soft. The timbers were noticed to extend slightly beyond the head and feet, while the head upon which they lay was upon its right side. The earth above them was a mixture of clay and fine sand and peculiarly moist. The length of this skeleton to the ankle bones was 6 feet and 1 inch. Two bone implements were found at its head, and at its right side near the head were two fragments of polished tubes and a hollowpoint of bone, which appears to have been shaped with a steel knife. Three bone implements were found beneath the right elbow of skeleton No. 13." I have quoted at some length from the Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, because it is the only account we have of the material taken from the mound, which is located almost in the center of the village site. COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 29 However, the contents of the mound are not available for inspection, at the U. S. National Museum, and we are compelled to rely upon the description and drawing given by the explorer, Mr. Middleton, both in regard to mode of burial and the artifacts placed in the grave. So far as I am able, to judge by having before me the description of the explorations of the mound and the implements, ornaments and pottery found in such profusion with the burials in the village, I would say that the builders of the mound were isochronological with the dwellers in the village. The bone arrowpoint mentioned in the latter part of the quotation as having the appearance of having been shaped with a steel knife, was duplicated many times in every section of the village, and was simply an unfinished arrowpoint, having been worked with a heavy piece of flint used as a scraper, and not as one would use a steel knife. An ordinary pocket glass will reveal the concave appearance of the cut, and at the same time show the scratches made by the uneven fracture of flint. I have discussed at some length the making of arrowpoints, from the tips of the tines and the toe bones of the deer in the Explorations of the Gartner Mound and Village site, Ohio Arch. and Hist. Quarterly, Vol. XIII, No. 2. In 1897 Doctor Loveberry, under the direction of Professor Moorehead, examined a small portion of this village, and I herewith quote from the conclusions of Professor Moorehead, which are found in Vol. 7, page 151, of the publications of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society. "With other village sites of the Scioto this has much in common. While larger than the average, yet it can be said that it presents somewhat of a lower culture than others connected with great earthworks. It will be observed that there is not a great number of burial mounds within or without the enclosure. Those two to four miles west, along Paint Creek, may have been used by the occupants of the enclosure for their interments, but one cannot say positively. The character of the relics and the lack of evidence of high aboriginal art at this place are taken as evidence of the primitive character of the villagers. I do not think that they were the same people who erected the earthwork, or of the same tribe. At Hopewell's, Hopetown, Harness's and the Mound City fragments of elaborately carved shells, rings, polished pipes, both effigy and platform, etc., have been found. None of these truly polished, ceremonial, or artistic objects were found in the ash pits or on the habitation sites of the Baum Village site. The place is interesting in that it shows a lower degree of culture than that evinced on the sites above mentioned. This naturally brings forward the question—Is this a later occupation ? Is it an earlier one? I am convinced that it antedates the construction of the works. I do not think it is of the historic period, and if Indian, of some tribe which knew little or naught of agriculture. No pestles were found. The bones of animals and the unios from the creek, found in such profusion, would indicate the presence of a hunting tribe. No foreign substances were present. Flint Ridge material was absent. Neither the effigy of the fox, nor the rude sculpture upon the pipe can be classed with the beautiful carvings of other Scioto Valley culture-sites." From the above quotations it will be seen that the Baum Mound and Village site has had some attention from the Archaeologist and was considered by them of more than ordinary importance. In the following pages I give a detailed account of the work of three seasons in the village, bringing to light forty-nine tepee sites which were more or less the permanent abode of the dwellers, 127 burials which surrounded the tepees and 234 subterranean storehouses, in which were stored the winter supplies and which were afterwards used for refuse pits. During the summer of 1899, I examined a section of the village which lays directly south of the mound, extending the work to the 30 - HISTORY OF OHIO west, and finally ending the work of the season directly north of the mound. During the summer of 1903, I examined a large portion of the village directly east of the mound, and during the summer of 1902, sections were examined northeast of the mound, extending along the edge of the gravel terrace, directly southeast of the mound. The examination of these various sections were made to discover, if possible, the extent of the village, as well as to ascertain the mode of life in the various sections, and whether the same people inhabited the village in all its parts. The land upon which this village is situated has been owned by the Baums for more than three quarters of a century. At the present time the land upon which the village proper is situated is owned by Mr. J. E. Baum and Mr. Pollard Hill, and through the kindness of these gentlemen, I was not in any way restricted in my examination of the village ; in fact, they assisted me in many ways to make the work pleasant and profitable. About three quarters of a century ago, Mr. Baum's grandfather cleared this land, which was then covered with a growth of large trees of various kinds, such as the. black walnut, oak, sycamore, and ash, and it has practically been under cultivation ever since. The top surface consists of from twelve to thirty-six inches of leaf mould, and alluvial deposit, which overlies a thin stratum of compact clay. Directly beneath this clay or hardpan, is found gravel. During the entire examination of this village, something less than two acres of ground was dug over, and examined inch by inch by the aid of the pick, spade and small hand trowel, bringing to light the habitations and burial places of these early people. No one living in this section, not even those cultivating the soil for the three quarters of a century mentioned, knew that the remains of a buried city of a prehistoric people lay only a few inches beneath the surface. As the examination progressed it was evident that a few pages, at least, of the history of remote time, were being revealed in the deep pits, which served as subterranean storehouses for the early agriculturists. A few more pages were brought to light when deep down in the clay, the burial grounds for each family were discovered, and still a few more pages when the tepee, with its fireplace, stone mortars, implements and ornaments, lying in profusion upon the floor of the little home, partially told in silent language of the great drama of life, enacted by those early people. I herewith present a drawing, Fig. 6, of a portion of the village farthest to the northeast of the mound, which shows the site of a large tepee, the largest found during the explorations and, perhaps, the most interesting in this, that this tepee was never changed and always occupied the exact ground upon which it was originally built, while in many other instances the tepee was shifted from place to place, even occupying the ground used for burial purposes, and the deserted tepee site afterwards being used for the burial of the dead, or for subterranean storehouses. As I have stated, this tepee was the largest found in the village of oblong construction and measuring upwards of 21 feet in length by 12 feet in width inside of the posts. The posts were large, as shown by the post-molds, and consisted of twenty-one set upright in the ground, the smallest being five inches in diameter and the largest nine and one-fourth inches. On the inside seven other posts similar in size to the outer ones were promiscuously placed, presumably for the support of the roof. The posts for the most part consisted of the trunks of small trees, with the hark attached, placed in the ground. The imprint of the bark was quite visible, but the trees all being young it would be impossible to identify from the bark the kind of trees used in the construction of the tepee. The posts were made the proper length by the use of fire, and no doubt the trees were felled by fire, for at the bottom of the postmolds charcoal was invariably found.. The covering of the tepee evidently consisted of bark, grass or skins, as no indications were found pointing to COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 31 the use of earth as a mud plaster in the construction of the sides or top. The fireplace was placed in the center of the tepee and was about 4 feet in diameter, 6 inches deep at the center and 3 inches deep. at the edge, and had very much the appearance of having been plastered from time to time with successive layers of clay. The earth beneath the fireplace was burned a brick-red to the depth of eight inches. The original floor FIG. 6 — Tepee site, surrounded on one side by the burial ground and on the other by underground storehouses. of the tepee had been made fairly smooth, but almost six inches of earth had little by little and from time to time been placed upon the floor. This earth had scattered through it implements and ornaments, both finished and unfinished, polishing stones, broken pottery, hammer stones, a large stone mortar, and many animal bones, especially of the deer, raccoon, bear, and wild turkey. As the animals named were most likely killed during the winter season, one must infer that the tepee was the scene of domestic activities during the winter, and that during the spring, summer and autumn the preparation of food was mostly done outside of 32 - HISTORY OF OHIO the tepee at the large fireplaces. However, the tepee described above is not typical of the village as far as size and shape and surroundings arc concerned. The average tepee is about one-half the size and invariably circular in form, and the posts used in their construction much smaller. The inside of the tepees are practically all the same. The surroundings of the tepee, such as the subterranean storehouses and the burial places, depend upon the size of the tepee. Surrounding the large tepee just described, to the south was the burial ground where thirty burials were unearthed, the largest in the village. Of these burials twenty had not reached beyond the age of adolescents, showing that 66 2/3 per cent of the family group never reached the adult age. Fourteen of the twenty were under six years of age, showing that the mortality among small children was very great, being fully 70 per cent, not taking into account the four small babies found in the refuse pits which surrounded the tepee. The mortality of the young under the adult age in this family is greater than in any other individual family discovered in the village. Out of 127 burials unearthed in the village, 74 were under the age of sixteen, showing that fully 58 per cent of the children never reached the adult age. Of the 74 children under the age of sixteen, 56 were under the age of six years, showing that fully 75 per cent of the children born to these early peoples died before they attained the age of six years, not taking into account the 24 very small babies found in the ashes and refuse in the abandoned subterranean storehouses in various parts of the village. The burials of this wigwam group present another interesting feature, found in only one other part of the village, that of placing perfect pieces of pottery in the grave. Four burials representing five individuals, had each a pottery vessel placed near the head. All were carefully removed, but were more or less broken by freezing. The vessels havt been restored and will be described elsewhere in this monograph. Two of the vessels were placed with adults and each contained a single bone and made from the shoulder blade of the deer ; a few broken bones of the deer and wild turkey were found in one, and quite a number of mussel shells with a few deer bones were found in the other. The other two vessels were placed in the graves of children. One with a double burial, a few broken bones of the wild turkey were found in the vessel, together with two mussel shells worked into spoons. The vessel was placed near the head of the older child, whose age would not exceed four and one-half years. Two large bone awls made of the heavy leg bones of the elk were placed outside of the vessel and near the head, while in all the other burials where pottery was found, the awls were placed inside of the vessel. The other vessel contained bones of fish and a few small mussel shells, together with an awl made from the tibiotarsus of the wild turkey. Another interesting feature of one of the burials of this group and which was not found in any other section of the village, was the finding of a fine grained sandstone slab, nineteen and one-fourth inches long by five inches in width by one inch thick placed under the head of the skeleton. The slab had the appearance of having been water worn, but had received an additional polish by rubbing, the effect being noticeable over the entire surface of the stone. One side is perfectly plain ; the other side, finely polished, contains three indentations about one-eighth of an inch deep, and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Another feature of this interesting group is the finding of a few copper beads associated with shell beads in one of the burials. This find is the only instance where copper was found during the entire exploration in the village. However, it shows that the denizens were familiar with and possessed this very desirable metal. The refuse pits surrounding the tepee to the north were perhaps the most interesting in the village, for here abundant evidence was found showing that the refuse pits were originally intended and used for a COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 33 storehouse for corn, beans and nuts, and perhaps, for the temporary storage of animal food, etc., and afterwards used as a receptacle for refuse from the camp. For some time I was of the opinion that the large cistern-like holes were dug for the express purpose of getting rid of the refuse, but as the explorations progressed I soon discovered their real purpose by finding the charred remains of the ears of corn placed in regular order on the bottom of the pit ; and I was further rewarded by finding pits in various sections of the village containing charred corn, beans, hickory nuts, walnuts, etc., which had.bbeen stored in the pit and no doubt accidentally destroyed. Since completing my examination of the Baum Village I examined the Gartner Mound as well as the village site which surrounded the mound, and find that the two villages had very much in common. The family grouping and the subterranean storehouse were identical in every respect with those at the Baum Village. Another notable feature in this village was the finding of the Indian dog, and I quote from my preliminary report, page 81, Vol. X, Publication of the Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society : "The bones of the old Indian dog were found in great numbers, and there is no doubt but that this dog was one of their domestic animals, for it is known that dogs were domesticated long before the earliest records of history, their remains being found in connection with the rude implements of the ancient cave and lake dwellers all through Europe. However, the history and description of the Indian dog, in the ancient times, is yet a subject far from solution. The remains of the dog found in this village site were described by Professor Lucas, of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, as being a short-faced dog, much of the size and proportions of a bull terrier, though probably not short-haired. Professor Lucas says he has obtained specimens apparently of the same breed from the village sites in Texas and from old Pueblos. Professor Putnam, of Harvard University, for more than twenty years has been collecting bones of dogs in connection with pre-historic burials in various parts of America, and a study of the skulls of these dogs found in the mounds and burial places in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Ohio, Kentucky and New York, and from the great shell heaps of Maine, show that a distinct variety or species of dog was distributed over North America in pre-Columbian times. Apparently the same variety of dog is found in the ancient site of the Swiss Lake dwellers at Neufchatel, also in the ancient tombs of Thebes in Egypt. Professor Putnam further says : "This variety of dog is apparently identical with the pure-bred Scotch Collie of today. If this is the case, the pre-historic dog in America, Europe and Egypt and its persistence to the present time as a thoroughbred is suggestive of a distinct species of the genus canis, which was domesticated several thousand years ago, and also that the pre-historic dog in America was brought to this continent by very early emigrants from the old world." He further states : "That comparisons have not been made with dogs that have been found in the tribes of the Southwest, the ancient Mexicans, and with the Eskimo." In the latter part of the fifteenth century Columbus found two kinds of dogs in the West Indies and later Fernandez described three kinds of dogs in Mexico, and as Professor Lucas has been able to trace the Baum Village dog into the far Southwest, it is very likely one of the kinds described by Fernandez. However, it must be admitted that comparisons have not been made with sufficient exactness to place the Baum Village dog with any of those described by the early writers. During the entire exploration fifty bones of the dog were removed, representing perhaps as many individuals. Some of the bones showed marks of the flint knife upon them, others were made into ornaments, while others were broken in similar manner to bones of the deer and raccoon. Seven skulls were found, but all had been broken in order to remove the brain. 34 - HISTORY OF OHIO During the explorations at the Gartner Village, which is located six miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, along the Scioto River, remains of the Indian dog were found in the refuse pits similar to those at the Baum Village, and their osteological character accord in every respect with the dog found at the Baum Village site. From our examination of this village and the evidence revealed by the refuse pits and the sites of their little homes shows that these early inhabitants were not savages depending entirely upon the wild food for their subsistence, but were barbarians having a settled place of abode, a developed agriculture, the storage of food supplies for future use, and the domestication of at least one animal, namely, the Indian dog, which of all animals would best show adaptation to his master's wants and pleasures. It is evident from the large quantity of animal remains found in the pits, that the inhabitants of Baum Village site depended upon the chase for a very large part of their subsistence. Everywhere about the village, especially in the abandoned storehouses and in the sites of wigwams, the broken bones of various animals, that were used as food, were found in abundance. The abandoned storehouse was a veritable mine for animal bones. A memorandum of all the bones taken from one pit was made. The pit measured 3 feet and 7 inches in diameter by 5 feet 10 inches in depth and contained 375 bones and shells, some of which were mere fragments, while others, such as the leg bones of the beaver, groundhog and raccoon were in a perfect state. A summary of all the bones and shells is as follows : Virginia deer, 35 per cent. ; wild turkey, 10 per cent ; two species of fresh water unios, 10 per cent ; gray fox, 10 per cent ; raccoon, 5 per cent ; black bear, 5 per cent ; box turtle, 5 per cent ; the remainder of the bones being divided about equally between the groundhog, wild cat, elk, opossum, beaver, rabbit, wild goose, and great horned owl. By far the largest number of bones were those of the Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Out of twenty barrels of bones brought to the museum, fully 35 per cent were of this animal. It will therefore be safe to say that 35 per cent of all the animals used for food by these aboriginal inhabitants of Baum. Village were the Virginia deer. At the Gartner Village, six miles north of Chillicothe, this animal constituted fully 50 per cent of all the animals used for food. The presence of great numbers of mussel shells, both in the pits and surrounding the tepee sites, would indicate that this shell fish was much used for food. At the Gartner Village the remains of large mussel bakes were found, 1 but the large pits used in the preparation of the mussels for feasts were not found at the Baum site. However, large holes, from which earth had been taken, perhaps for use in the construction of the mound, were filled with the shells, and surrounding pits also contained great numbers of the shells, indicating that a great feast had taken place, and that the mussels were prepared in a way similar to those at the Gartner mound. In order to secure data of certain cultures in each country, historical records are quite important and help to determine the origin of certain agricultural products. These records show that agriculture came originally from three great regions which had no communications with each other, namely, China, South West Asia and Egypt, and inter-tropical America, and from these three regions began great civilizations based upon agriculture. However, we find that history is at fault in giving us much early data concerning the third great center of civilization which does not even date from the first centuries of the Christian era, but we know from the widespread cultivation of corn, beans, sweet potatoes and tobacco, north and south of the center of the American civilization, that a very much greater antiquity, perhaps several thousand years, must 1 -Accounts of the mussel bakes are given in the Pub. of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol. XIII. COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 35 be given for the perfection of these plants up to the time when history begins. The finding of charred corn, beans, nuts and seeds of fruits, and even the remains of dried fruit, in the subterranean storehouses in various parts of the Baum Village, leads one to believe that the early inhabitants were agriculturists enjoying a certain degree of civilization. The most important product raised was corn—Zea mays. 2 At the time of the discovery of America in 1492, corn was one of the staples of its agriculture, and was found distributed from the La Plata Valley to almost every portion of Central and Southern United States. The natives living in this vast region had names for corn in their respective languages. A number of eminent botanists have made careful explorations to find corn in the conditions of a wild plant, but without success. The corn unearthed in the village was always in the abandoned subterranean storehouses and invariably at the bottom of the pit. When any quantity was found the charred lining of the storehouse was present, which lining frequently consisted of long grass and sometimes bark. The corn, when found in the ear, was laid in regular order, devoid of the husk, and consisted of two varieties, an eight-rowed and a ten-rowed variety. The eight-rowed variety had a cob about half an inch in diameter and short, while the cob of the ten-rowed variety was larger and longer. The grains and cobs having been charred, were in a good state of preservation. In other pits the corn had been shelled and placed in a .woven bag and the charred, massed grains were removed in large lumps with portions of the woven bag attached. Therefore it seems reasonable to believe from the presence of so many storehouses for the care and preservation of their most nutritious agricultural product, that corn was the one staple upon which prehistoric man depended to tide him through the cold winters, and until the harvest came again. Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)—According to J. S. Newberry, who published the first flora of the state (1859), the wild bean occurs generally throughout the state. This bean is found in abundance in the pits, sometimes mixed with shelled corn and placed in a container, and sometimes placed in the storehouse along with nuts, and dried fruit of the wild plum, and was no doubt one of the agricultural products of aboriginal man of the Baum Village site. According to the latest discoveries, in the Peruvian tombs of Ancon and other South American tombs, the origin of the bean was perhaps in the intertropical American civilization, and no doubt spread northward to the Mississippi Valley similar to maize. Beans were found also in the storehouses at the Gartner Village, 3 and in some of the burials of the Harness Mound explored in 1905. Three species of hickory nuts were found in abundance in the storehouse. Hicoria ovata (shell bark) was taken from almost every pit where the shells were found. Some of the perfect, charred nuts were found in the bottom of pits associated with corn and beans, but the ashes thrown into the pits from their fire-places usually contained many charred shells of this nut. Hicoria minima (Bitternut) and Hicoria laciniosa were also found in the ashes, but not so plentiful as the shell-bark. Butternuts (Juglans cinera) and Walnuts (Juglans nigra) were both found in the perfect charred state in the storehouses and the ashes from the fire-places contained many shells. Papaw seed (Asiminan triloba) and Hazelnut (Corylus americana) were also found in the bottom of the storehouse. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) found in small quantities in various parts of the village. 2 - The identification of the corn, beans, nuts and seeds from the Baum Village was made by Professor J. H. Schaffer of the Dept. of Botany, Ohio State University. 3 - Explorations of the Gartner Mound and Village Site, Vol. XIII. 36 - HISTORY OF OHIO Wild Red Plum (Prunis americanus)--The seeds were found in the ashes and the charred remains of the fruit with seed were taken from one of the storehouses. Wild Grape (Vitas (op) ) was found sparingly in a few of the pits. Food, for the most part, both animal and vegetable, was prepared by cooking, as evidenced by the large fireplaces, the innumerable pieces of broken pottery, and the mortars and stone pestles used in crushing the corn, dried meats, fruits and berries. The fireplace was always present within the tepee, and several of them could always be found outside of the tepee and in close proximity to it. The fireplaces often show repair. When the hollow in the ground became too deep by long use it was filled up to the proper depth by mud plaster. The necessary precautions were not taken to remove all the ashes from the fireplace before the plaster was applied, consequently when the fire was again placed in the fireplace it soon cracked loose, and portions of burned clay were removed with the ashes from time to 'time as the fireplaces were cleaned, and the ashes with the broken lining were thrown into the pits. The large stone mortars were found in every section of the village, and were made from slabs of fine-grained sandstone, averaging in size from ten to fifteen inches in length, from seven to twelve inches wide, and from four to seven inches in thickness, with a depression on one side, in many cases only about one inch deep, while in others the depression would be several inches. The stone pestles used in crushing corn and preparing food to be cooked, were not selected with any great care nor was very much labor expended in their manufacture, as many of them were merely natural pebbles, suitable as to size and weight, slightly changed by a little pecking or rubbing, while others were natural flat and rounded pebbles, having a small depression cut on each side. None of the bell-shaped pestles found at the Gartner Village were found at the Baum Village, although the preparation of food products was the same. The use of pottery in the preparation of food was universal. Around the fireplaces both in and out of the tepee, pottery fragments were always present, showing that the pottery was broken while being used as a ,cooking utensil. The large pieces were gathered up and thrown into the open refuse pits near at hand, and here we find them quite often with particles of the charred food clinging to the sides of the broken vessels. The potter's art seems to have been" known and practiced by each family group. They became expert in successfully tempering clay to strengthen it, and in then carrying it through all the stages of modeling, ornamenting, drying, and at last burning. Implements—The implements used in the chase and for domestic and agricultural purposes were found in great numbers in the abandoned storehouses and the sites `of the tepees. For the most part they were made from bone and horn, but implements made from Jlint and granitic bowlders were in evidence in all sections of the village. The implements used for agricultural purposes and for excavating for the storehouses were made for the most part of large mussel shells. Implements made of wood were no doubt largely used, as charred remains of digging sticks and pieces of wood that had been polished were frequently met with. Stone Implements—The largest of the stone implements, with the exception of the stone mortars previously described, were the grooved axes, which were sparingly found in the pits and tepee sites, two specimens having been found during the entire explorations, one in a tepee site and one in a refuse pit. Celts-This most useful implement was frequently met with in all sections of the village, and ranges in size from two to six inches in length. All are finely polished. The celts were made for the most part from compact granite bowlders ; others of banded slate and flint. Specimens illustrating the various stages in the manufacture of the celt were COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 37 secured during the explorations. Celts were frequently placed with the burials. One was the usual number placed in the grave, though in several instances two were found, and in the grave of a large adult male, three celts were placed in different parts of the grave—one at the feet, left hand and head, respectively. The pits revealed many broken celts, ,showing that the implement was in general use. Hammer Stones—The hammerstones, if abundance is to be taken into account, were perhaps, the most useful stone implements found at the Baum Village. In the site of a single tepee twenty-five to thirty would be unearthed, and very often as many would be taken from a single pit. They were made of small, water-worn bowlders, with a diameter of two to four inches, and the only evidence upon some of the specimens showing that they were used as hammerstones was the battered ends or sides ; while others were artistically smoothed and polished on various sides, and perhaps covered with a skin and used as a club-head. However, it was not necessary for aboriginal man to expend unnecessary work upon an implement when a natural bowlder from the river near at hand would answer the purpose. Therefore it seems natural to believe that all the bowlders of proper size found in the village were more or less utilized in preparing meal, cracking nuts, breaking bones of animals used for food, etc. Grinding or Polishing Stones—They are usually made of a fine-grained sandstone, 4 but numerous pieces of coarse grained sandstone taken from the top of the hills, southwest of the village, were also found. The grinding stones were indispensable in the manufacture of the great variety of bone implements found in the village, and varied in size from a slab of sandstone one foot in length by a few inches and thickness, to a small piece of sandstone only a few inches long and one inch in thickness. Chipped implements of flint were found in every section of the village, both the finished and unfinished specimens, and were made, for the most part, from flint procured from the Flint Ridge section, and showing about all the grades secured at this famous prehistoric quarry. The colors also varied from the white or gray horn stone through the various shades of chalcedony to the variegated and banded jasper forms. The greater part of the flint was brought to the village in large pieces, and there worked into implements, as several large pieces of flint were found and the chips were everywhere present. The most abundant of all the objects made from flint were the small, triangular arrowheads. Flint Drills, varying in length from two to four inches, were also abundant. Two kinds of drills were found those having one point and usually small, and those having two points and much larger, but all have the same ,general appearance. Flint Knives—The flint knives flaked from the large jasper cores are also present. The knives are not large, and vary in length from one and one-half to three inches. Fig. 28 shows representative specimens made from banded and variegated jasper, showing several facets on the convex face, while the concave face is perfectly plain and always regular and smooth—due to the fine grain of the chalcedony and jasper. Very few, if any, knives found in the village present any chipping, and all have the same general curve from end to end. Hoes—The hoes found in the village were made, for the most part, of shells of the fresh water unios, but hoes made from the Waverly black slate were frequently met with. The hoes made from slate were roughly cut from slabs of about the desired size, but hoes made from mussel shells were very abundant. The shells selected were usually those of Unio plicatus, which are of good size, and the shell meets the requirements of being thick and heavy. The majority of the specimens are greatly worn, showing that they had served their purpose. The implement, when useless, was thrown into the refuse pits or left on the 4 - Waverly group. 38 - HISTORY OF OHIO surface within the tepee, to be covered with soil the same as other implements, and the bones of various animals. Bone Implements—Bone implements, such as arrow points, scrapers, awls, needles, fish hooks, etc., were very abundant everywhere in the village, especially in the abandoned storehouses and in the sites of their habitats. Here were also found specimens showing all the stages in the manufacture of any one implement ; bone objects, such as bones that gave promise of meeting the requirements for a certain implement, but after work had continued to a certain stage were found defective. Small caches of deer tines, probably collected during a hunting expedition, were found hidden for future use in some part of the tepee site. Bones of about all the animals used for food were used in the making of implements of all kinds, and very rarely would any of the large bones of such animals as the deer, elk and bear be found in a perfect state, as all were used in the industrial arts of these early inhabitants. For a long time it was thought that prehistoric man had only stone tips or points for his arrows, but when their tumuli and villages were examined points were found made of bone, and during the examination at the Baum Village the bone and stone points taken from the pits were about equally divided as to numbers. The bone points, for the most part, were made from tines of deer horns. The horns were found in numbers, but the tines were always removed. Bone Scrapers—Of all the bone implements found in the village, the bone scraper, made from the metapodal bones of the deer and elk, is the largest bone specimen found, and varies in length from eight to fourteen inches. Scrapers were also made from the shoulder blades of the deer and elk, especially of the elk. The spine was frequently removed and the supra scapular border would be sharpened into a cutting edge, and frequently specimens were met with in which the spine was sharpened to form a cutting edge and the posterior and anterior border and the post scapular and prescapular portions were removed. The shoulder blade of the elk was always converted into this most useful implement, for not a single specimen was found that did not show this use. The shoulder blades of the deer were not always converted into implements, but very frequently they were met with ; occasionally from a single pit a half dozen or more would be taken, not a single one showing any marks upon it indicating it had been used for any purpose, while in other pits the same number might be taken and all show use as a scraper. Bone Awls—Bone awls may be considered the most abundant of the many bone implements found in the Baum Village, and the bones of about all the animals and birds used for food were used in the manufacture of the various types of awls. Many of them were manufactured from the heavy leg bones of the elk. These awls show a great amount of patience and labor in working down this thick bone, as shown by the enlarged portions, while others made from the same kind of bone are worked down to three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and eight inches in length, with a well-wrought head sometimes carved representing the head of some animal. Awls showing much labor and skill in their manufacture were found in every section of the village associated with others that required but little labor to furnish a very serviceable implement. Needles—Perfect needles are not found in abundance in the village, although the broken pieces are frequently met with. The needle is made for the most part from the rib of an elk, which is cut off at the desired length, and then the rib is split and both pieces are manufactured into needles. The pieces are worked down to a little less than one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness and the average length being about six inches. They frequently curve throughout their entire length, while others curve more near the point. The needle from this village is uniform throughout with the exception of a slightly enlarged head, which is pierced with a circular eye, the point being not sharp or pointed, but an oval. COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 39 Bone Knives - Another useful implement found at the Baum site is the knife made from points of the shoulder blade of both the deer and elk, and not infrequently the bones of other animals whose bones would in any way be suitable for such an implement. The bone knife could not take the place of the flaked. flint knife with its sharp cutting edge. A number of bone tubes, made from various bones of animals and birds were frequently met with. Implements Made of Beaver Teeth—The bones of the beaver were seldom used to make implements or ornaments, but the incisor teeth, both upper and lower, were used in making implements. Spear Points Made of Horn—Spear points made of horn were sparingly met with. They vary in length from two and one-half to four inches, and the implement shows but a small amount of labor in its manufacture. All are roughly and unsystematically made from flat pieces of deer and elk horn. Implements Used in Flaking Knives—The flaking tools were always made of deer and elk horn, and varied in length from one and one-half inches to four inches, and in diameter from one-half inch to three-fourths inch. One end is square, while the other end is oval, the longest point being in the middle of the specimen. The square end on almost all the specimens shows a splintered and battered condition, indicating that the implement had been struck with a heavy blow. The oval end also frequently shows a splintered condition,. caused by improperly placing the tool against the flint, and striking the blow. The flaking tools are found everywhere in the village, especially in the sites of the tepees and in the graves. Fish Hooks—This implement is one of the most interesting of the great variety of bone implements found in the village, because of the great care and patience necessary in the manufacture and because the finished hook in many ways is the exact counterpart of our modern hook, devoid of the barb. Baum Village, in comparison with other villages in Ohio, is very rich in fish hooks, broken and perfect hooks being found in every section, some large, being over two and one-half inches in length, while some were quite small, not exceeding one inch in length. Beside the perfect hooks, every stage in the manufacture of the hook was also found. Fish hooks found at the Gartner Village sites 5 were similar in every respect to those found at the Baum Village, even to the details of their manufacture, while at Madisonville, Professor Putnam found that the aboriginal fish hook makers proceeded to make their hooks in a very different manner—by first boring a hole through the bone, and the hole was the beginning of the inside of the curve of the hook. The point and shaft, were worked out from this hole. Professor Putnam has described the stages of fish hook manufacture at Madisonville in an article on. "The Way Fish Hooks Were Made in the Little Miami Valley," which appears in the Twentieth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum. In no instance have I found at the Baum Village site any bone intended to be fashioned into a fish hook that had been perforated by drilling. In the article referred to, Profeisor Putnam also describes two perfect fish hooks and one in the process of manufacture, which were taken from an ancient burial place along the Little Miami River by Doctor Metz, which differ from those found in the ash pits at Madisonville; but agree in every respect with those from the Baum Village site. Shell Spoons—Spoons made of the mussel shells are frequently found in the refuse pits, but the graves furnish three-fourths of all found in the village. Very often a large amount of work in shaping the shell to the proper proportion is required, while in others very little work is 5 - Fish hooks described Vol. XIII, Gartner Md. & Village Site, Pub. of the O. S. A. & H. Society. 40 - HISTORY OF OHIO needed. Spoons made from the carapace of the common box turtleTerrapene Carolina—are found in all sections of the village. Woven Fabrics—Evidences of woven fabrics were found in the refuse pits where the cloth had been charred. Associated with the cloth was corn, beans and nuts of various kinds, and perhaps the woven fabric at one time served as a container for the care of the agricultural products until needed for use. The bags may have been used for carrying and collecting stores of various kinds. No fabrics were found in the graves, as all the dead were buried in the usual way of placing the body at full length in the grave, and no fire was used in connection with the burial ceremony. Consequently, if a woven fabric was used for clothing, and this clothing placed with the dead, not a single thread or imprint of the cloth remained. Ornaments—In the beginning of our study of the primitive ornaments secured at the Baum Village site, both in the burials and those found scattered in the tepee sites and the refuse pits, I at once saw the similarity of the primitive forms to those of civilized forms. Our pendants, necklaces, bracelets and mounted pearls—all these forms were found in abundance in the village, and the difference lies not so much in the form as in the material and the workmanship. However, a primitive pearl necklace taken from one of the graves would differ but little from a modern pearl necklace, and that only in the matter of selection of the pearls. The drilling, the manner of mounting and the wearing were identical with those of today. At the Gartner Mound 6 a gorget was found with a hole cut in the center and a pearl cut and mounted to properly fill it. The ornaments for the most part were made of shell, bone and stone, and were abundant in the refuse pits and burials. Out of the 127 burials unearthed in the village, only nine were devoid of ornaments of some kind. The ornaments made of shell were of two kinds : those made from the fresh water mussel, so abundant in the streams, and those made from ocean shells, perhaps secured by barter. The fresh water mussel, on account of the size, would only furnish the smaller gorgets and beads, while the large shell gorgets were made from the body whorl of an ocean shell. Shell Pendants—Pendants made of shell were found in every section of the village, especially in the burials. For the most part they were made of ocean shells, occasionally one being found made of mussel shell. Those made of ocean shells were usually an irregular strip of shell, unevenly polished, and pierced at one end for attachment, and varied in length from two inches to three and one-half inches. Shell Beads—Beads made of shell were for the most part made of ocean shells, and were of two kinds, those made from the large body whorls of Fulgur perversum, never exceeding one-fourth of an inch in diameter, highly polished and perforated with a hole at the center and representing a high degree of skill in their manufacture. The other kind was made from a small ocean shell, Oliva literata, which was slightly altered by cutting away the apex and producing a passage for a string, which may be introduced through the natural aperature. Another small ocean shell, Marginilla conoidalis, was frequently met with, and they were cut and ground in the same way as the Oliva. Pearl Beads—Beads made from the fresh water pearls are frequently met with in the graves. The pearls are all small, usually irregular in shape, and have no doubt lost much in size by exfoliation, as the thin decayed lamellae drops off in concentric scales, showing beneath the iridescent nacre. The pearls were no doubt secured from the fresh water mussels found so abundantly in the river. Bone Beads—Beads made of bone were present in almost all the 6 - Explorations of the Gartner Mound and Village Site, pub. of the Ohio State Arch. & Hist. Society, Vol. XIII. COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 41 graves where ornaments were placed, and they were also abundant in the tepee sites and refuse pits. Bone beads were made in two ways, by cutting a crease entirely around the bone with a flint and then breaking, and afterward polishing to remove the rough edges. Fully 75 per cent of the beads are made in this way. Another way of making beads was by the use of fire, perhaps resorted to when flint was not at hand, and was accomplished by burning a ring around the bone at the point desired, and then braking and afterward grinding off the rough edges. By this process a part of the charred bone remains and takes a high polish, which no doubt added to the ornamental value of the beads. The necklaces found at the Baum Village for the most part consisted of a strand of beads, small toward the ends and increasing in size toward the middle, where a central bead of unusual size or design is placed. Further indications were found in the graves that beads were also used to ornament their hair, and even hung as pendants from the hair. Other burials show that beads were used as bracelets and anklets. Canine teeth of the bear, wolf and elk were invariably used for pendants in necklaces, and quite often formed the entire necklace. Cut Jaws Used as Ornaments--The cutting into form of animal jaws to be worn as ornament was a very prominent feature in ornament making of the inhabitants of Baum Village. The upper and lower jaws of the Gray Wolf (Canis occidentalis) were always made into ornaments. Bear jaws cut into ornaments were not found in the village, though in other sections of the county ornaments made of the jaws of this animal were frequently met with. At the Baum Village nothing but the gray wolf was found. Deer jaws cut into implements or ornaments are not abundant in the village, although the perfect and broken jaws are present everywhere. Wild turkey heads perforated with from one to three holes were abundant in the refuse pits, but none were found in the graves. However, at the. Gartner Mound, in one of the graves, fourteen heads were found which had served as rattles. The heads were perforated with holes for attachment, and each contained small quartz pebbles. The heads found at Baum resembled in every way those found at the Gartner Mound. Pipes—Both perfect and broken pipes were found in every section of the village, though not many were found in the graves. Out of 127 burials only two had pipes placed in the grave. For the most part, pipes without stems were the prevailing type found. The tubular pipes were apparently made of the same kind of tempered clay used in making pottery. The average length was four and one-half inches, and the greatest diameter one inch. The tube at the largest end would average almost three-fourths of an inch, gradually tapering to the small end, where it is about one-fourth inch or less in diameter. The egg-shaped or oval forms were more abundant than any other form. They were made of limestone, quartzite, slate and sandstone. Pipes showing all the stages of manufacture were found from the roughly pecked form to the polished quartzite with the hole in the bowl half completed. Method of Burial in the Village—The manner of burying the dead may be considered as the typical method at the Baum Village. Each family group had their own private burial ground, and it was very close to the tepee. In several instances the graves were less than three feet from the tepee site and seldom would the graves be more than ten feet away. In close proximity to the mound the family groups were quite near each other, and the family burial ground so restricted that the dead would necessarily be buried close together, and the subterranean storehouses would be dug near the burial grounds. The inhabitants of Baum Village, according to the measurements,, would average for adult males about 5 feet 7/ inches in height and adult 42 - HISTORY OF OHIO females 5 feet 4 inches, only one man being found that would measure 6 feet. The bones of the skeleton are perfect, and are large in proportion to the height of the individual. He died before reaching the age of thirty years. Several skeletons of adult males found in the village have strong, heavy and perfect bones and prominent muscular attachment, indicating that they were strong and muscular, and lived to a ripe old age. Out of forty-nine tepee sites explored, ten had no burials surrounding them, and only a few storehouses, showing that the tepee had not been occupied for any great period. All the burials in the entire village were practically the same, being placed in a grave with their implements and ornaments, unattended by any ceremony of fire. As I have stated elsewhere in this paper, 58 per cent of the children never reached the adult age. I also made an estimate from my field notes of the fifty-three adults and find that 92 per cent died before reaching the age of fifty, and that 56 per cent died before reaching the age of thirty. I also found that 21 skeletons of the 127 exhumed had diseased bones, and I requested Mr. S. T. Orton, then a student at the Ohio State University preparatory to his course in medicine and one of my assistants in the field, to take up the study of the diseased bones when the proper time came. Accordingly, after finishing his scientific course at the Ohio State University, he entered the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania and devoted much of his spare time for three years to the microscopical study of the diseased bones procured from the graves of the Baum Village site, and in April, 1905, published in the Medical Bulletin of the University of Pennsylvania the results of his investigation in a paper entitled "A Study of the Pathological Changes in Some Mound-Builders Bones from the Ohio Valley, With Especial Reference to Syphilis." Doctor Orton's conclusions are quoted : "The material under examination is from a source undoubtedly pre-Columbian and the lesions are such as to justify the diagnosis of syphilis by the following pathological evidence: Changes affecting chiefly the diaphyses where long bones are concerned, showing a predilection for those bones which are most exposed to trauma, consisting of large exotoses and osteophytic overgrowths, and characterized by the concurrent presence in the same specimen of both a rarefying and condensing ostitis as demonstrated by gross and microscopic examination. Of 127 skeletons from one series of excavations, twenty-one showed traces of disease, 60 per cent of the affected showed the changes most upon the tibia with the ulna, cranium, and sternum following in order. Of the specimens examined rarefying ostitis was grossly manifest in all but two, one of which (ankylosed metatarsal and cuneiform) was probably of traumatic or septic nature, and the other (a clavicle) was not examined in cross-section. Grossly sclerosis was evident in three of the ten, while on microscopic examination only one of six from which sections were taken failed to show condensation in some areas." The explorations of the Baum Village site have brought to light many points of interest concerning the home life of a prehistoric people who had risen above the level of mere children of the forest, depending upon wild wood for their subsistence. They had established homes, a developed agriculture, made the collection of and provided storage for food supplies for future use. Therefore the Baum Village site culture in all essential points resembles the culture of the Gartner Village site along the Scioto, and the Ft. Ancient and other culture sites along the Miami ; establishing the fact that at one time the valleys of Southern and Central Ohio were peopled by a culture which was quite uniform throughout the entire section, and for convenience I have termed these early inhabitants the Ft. Ancient Culture. The manufacture of their implements, such as scrapers, awls, needles and fish hooks, as well as the many implements in stone, as shown by the various stages in the COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 43 manufacture of these implements, were in every respect similar throughout the entire region. In the manufacture of their pottery, and especially in regard to their designs and shapes, they were quite similar, and it would be impossible to distinguish the Ft. Ancient pottery from the Baum, and the Baum from the Gartner Village site pottery. In the same valleys occupied by the Ft. Ancient Culture we find evidence of a higher culture, and for my convenience I have designated this culture the Hopewell Culture, taking the articles secured by Professor Moorehead from the Hopewell Mounds as the type. The Ft. Ancient culture occupied portions of the valleys which were later occupied by the Hopewell culture, as was evidenced by the results of the explorations of the Harness Mound group during the past summer (1905). After completing the explorations of the Harness Mound, the articles taken therefrom being of the higher culture, I examined a mound located outside of the great circle and not far distant from the Harness Group, directly to the south, and found this mound to be a burial mound of the Ft. Ancient Culture. At the center of the mound, and a few feet under the surface, was found an intrusive cremated burial, similar in every respect to the cremated burials of the Harness Mound. The artifacts of the Hopewell Culture can in almost every object used in common by the two cultures readily be distinguished from those of the Ft. Ancient Culture by the portrayal of the esthetic ideas of the artisan. My conclusions are, as I have stated elsewhere in this paper, that the builders of the Baum Mound were isochronological with the dwellers in the Baum Village. As in all the sites of the Ft. Ancient Culture examined, the inhabitants had an inter-tribal trade, as evidenced by the copper, ocean shells and mica there found ; that the dwellers in this village were pre-Columbian, as no objects showing European contact were met with and the village was occupied by the same culture in all its parts. THE HOPEWELL CULTURE The second culture occupying the territory of Southern, Western and Central Ohio is known as the Hopewell Culture, readily distinguished from the Fort Ancient Culture by their general mortuary customs and the artifacts deposited with their dead. The Hopewell Culture constructed mounds, made bone implements, manufactured pottery, but in a different way from the Fort Ancient people which is readily distinguished. The Hopewell Culture had arrived at a cultural stage where the communal effort in a great part replaced the individual endeavor and in so doing had reached a plane of efficiency probably not equaled by any other people in the stone age period of its development in Ohio. This fact is attested most strongly by their burial customs, in which often the communal depository for their dead was used. The high development of sculptural art by the Hopewell Culture is a most striking feature of their versatility. They used stone, bone, shell and copper for this work. They became expert in the setting of pearls, as many objects, and especially bear teeth, were set with large, perfect fresh-water pearls and often pearls were made into necklaces. Many of the pearls. as we find them in the burials are destroyed by the acids of the soil but the Archaeological Survey was able to find a perfect necklace containing 320 graduated pearls, all in fine condition. This culture also became expert in the manufacture of copper objects such as ear ornaments, headdresses and many decorated plates of conventional design. The Hopewell Culture was very fond of ornaments and many of their burials contain fine examples of skilled artisans' work. They became experts as metal workers in silver, copper and iron, and especially in copper, as this metal was most abundant. The copper and silver came from the Lake Superior region and was carried here in nuggets which 44 - HISTORY OF OHIO were found on the surface in that region. The nuggets vary in weight from ten pounds to one-fourth pound. The iron used by this culture is" meteoric, no doubt found upon the surface, and was used to make chisels and drills as well as ear ornaments, their most complicated ornament to manufacture. Ornaments of copper in some form were in evidence in practically all of the burials but the most frequently met with were the very complicated ear ornaments. These were usually made of two concavo-convex circular discs, connected together by a small cylinder of copper about one-quarter of an inch in diameter. While this ornament was perhaps the most complicated to manufacture it is no doubt the most abundant as several thousands were taken from the Hopewell group alone. The copper headdresses—some plain, some decorated and others made to represent the butterfly, deer antlers, bears and even man—are very elaborate and often decorated with pearls and cut mica. Small objects of copper, like pendants, bracelets, anklets, finger rings and nose ornaments, were frequently met with in many of the burials. Copper axes, chisels and awls were occasionally found but for the most part copper was made into ornaments. While artistic achievement is not always an index to the culture status of a people, the fact that in this respect they probably surpassed any other strictly stone age people, is significant, and taken together with other pertinent facts, places them very well along toward the upper stages of barbarism. The tobacco pipes used by the Hopewell Culture show a great number of admirably executed carvings of animals, birds and other life forms. Many of them would be worthy the efforts of the modern sculptor and cannot but excite wonderment and admiration for the primitive artists of prehistoric Ohio. In the record thus presented we see a very vivid picture of the strength and persistence of the forces underlying human development and urging it against all odds, toward a higher plane of development. In due course of time the State of Ohio, through its explorations, will be able to follow the migrations of the prehistoric cultures through the various river valleys of the state. Perhaps the account of the Explorations of the Tremper Mound, located on the lower Scioto, will help the reader to differentiate between the two great cultures found in the State of Ohio during prehistoric times. The Tremper Mound is situated five miles north of the City of Portsmouth, on the west side of the Scioto. River, in Rush Township, Scioto County, Ohio. The land upon which it is located is a part of the estate of Senator William D. Tremper, Portsmouth, which consists of more than 700 acres. of the rich bottom lands at the confluence of the Pond Creek and Scioto valleys. The immediate site of the mound is a level plateau, about seventy feet above low-water mark of the Scioto River. Looking westward from the summit of the mound upon the narrow valley of Pond Creek, threading its way between rugged hills upward of 500 feet in height, one is impressed with the powerful forces employed by nature in carving out this narrow water course, enabling the stream, fed by innumerable springs, to carry its surplus of pure cool water to its junction with the Scioto River. During glacial times, Pond Creek doubtless was an outlet for the waters from melting glaciers, pushing down from the Northwest, as well as for that from icebergs incident to the glacial period. These icebergs at times doubtless resulted in damming the flow of the torrent, and an extremely interesting illustration of this retarding influence is to be seen just a few hundred yards west of the mound. At the point referred to a most impressive natural amphitheatre, semicircular in form, 1,000 feet long and 50 feet or more in height, marks COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 45 the site along the east side of the valley of the stream where the glacial flood, breaking the restraint of the ice, has carved its history. At the intersection of the Scioto and Pond Creek valleys, and just a short distance southwest from the mound, is a fine spring of water. This spring doubtless played an important part in the life of the builders of the Tremper mound and other aboriginal dwellers, just as it has done in supplying a never-failing source of pure cold water to the early white settlers of that section, to their descendants, and to all who at the present time pass along the highway where it invitingly awaits the thirsty traveler. At the site of this spring, in an early day, was located the Buckhorn tannery, where Gen. U. S. Grant is said to have worked for a short time. According to Mr. Frank Johnson, who was employed as a workman at the time of the exploration of the mound, his father, Lewis H. Johnson, was foreman of the tannery when General Grant was employed therein. Scioto County, for the most part, is broken and hilly. The Scioto River flows directly through the county, from north to south, to its junction with the Ohio River at Portsmouth. The mouth of the Scioto is ninety feet below the level of Lake Erie, while its waters at Columbus are more than 300 feet above the low-water mark of the Ohio, showing that the average fall per mile between Columbus and Portsmouth is more than three feet. The valley of the Scioto is the broadest and perhaps the most fertile of any of the rivers flowing into the Ohio. The hills and ridges of Scioto County are simply the remnants of what once were continuous rock strata, now chiseled and sculptured by the tireless action of water and other natural agencies. Man has furthered the transformation by denuding the hills of their tangled forests, so that on every hand instead of woodland, are seen cultivated fields and pasture lands. From an archeological viewpoint, Scioto County presents several interesting features as regards geological formations. Among these are the outcropping, along the east bank of the Scioto River, of the Ohio pipestone (fire clay), and on the west bank of the river of the Ohio black shale, the latter underlying the whole county. The Ohio pipestone deposit extends over the eastern part of the county, beginning at the Scioto River, where the outcrop lies high up on the hills and gradually dips to the southeast, and continuing until in the eastern part of the county the outcrop lies low down near the base of the hills. The pipestone stratum varies in thickness from one and one-half feet to eleven feet, the average being three and one-half or four feet. In color it varies greatly, ranging from almost white, through all the various shades of color, to dark red. The dark red variety is scarcely distinguishable from the Minnesota pipestone. The Ohio pipestone was extensively used by prehistoric man in this region for making tobacco pipes. Of the 145 pipes taken from the Tremper Mound, all but four were made from that material, the exceptions being three of coral limestone and one of fine-grained sandstone. The Ohio black shale is the lowest stratum exposed in the county. It outcrops along the west bank of the Scioto River. In color it is very black, is fine grained, high in carbon, and crumbles after long exposure. The shale was used by prehistoric man in making gorgets and other ornaments found in the mound. The Tremper Mound has been in the possession of the Tremper family for many years. The base of the mound never had been disturbed, as the owners were unwilling that the mound should be examined, except under the auspices of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, and for the benefit of the state. Several years ago, Senator Tremper's sons, Richard and William Tremper, made a superficial examination by digging into the top of the mound at several points, finding a number of skeletons buried not more than one foot below the 46 - HISTORY OF OHIO surface. These burials doubtless were of an intrusive nature, as was shown by the finding of five additional and entirely similar burials in the exploration of the mound, but which differ greatly both in mortuary customs and artifacts from those of the real builders of the mound. The first published account of the Tremper Mound is found in "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," by Squier and Davis, 1846, page 83, with a drawing of the mound, shown as plate 29, after the survey of Charles Whittlesey. The work is designated as an PLAN OF FLOOR OF TREMPER MOUND. FIG. 3. "Ancient Work and Animal Effigy, Scioto County, Ohio." In their description of the Tremper Mound Squier & Davis say : "This singular work is situated five miles north of Portsmouth, Scioto County, Ohio, on the west bank of the Scioto River. It is not a true ellipse, but approaches very near it. Its longest axis is 480 feet, its conjugate diameter 407 feet. It is built upon a high and beautiful level, elevated some sixty or seventy feet above the Scioto River, which flows about half a mile to the eastward. The embankment is unaccompanied by a ditch and is about three feet in height, by thirty feet base. It has, as shown in the plan, a single gateway, ninety feet wide, opening to the southeast, which is covered by a long exterior mound, of about the same height with the embankment of the enclosure. "Within this enclosure is a large irregular mound, which from its resemblance to the animal-shaped mounds of Wisconsin, of which COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 47 notice will be taken in another place, constitutes by far the most interesting feature of the work. It is of the form and relative size indicated in the plan, and is composed of loose broken sandstone and earth, based upon dislocated and broken sand-rock. It is from one to eight feet high, being lowest at the eastern end or head, and at the projecting points. It is probably of the same design with those of Wisconsin, already alluded to, which occur in great numbers and in long and apparently dependent ranges. None of those, however, so far as known, are found enclosed after the manner of the one here presented. No explanation of the probable design of this work will be attempted here : it is impossible, however, to disconnect it from the superstitions of the ancient people. An interesting fact is communicated by F. Cleveland, Esq., of Portsmouth, who assisted Mr. Whittlesey in making the survey of this work, and who was engineer on the Ohio Canal when it was in progress ; viz., that the workmen engaged in excavating found large quantities of mica, in sheets, in the immediate vicinity of this enclosure. This mineral is found in great abundance in the mounds and in the neighborhood of these ancient works." Mr. Gerard Fowke in his "Archaeological History of Ohio," ventures to call the Tremper Mound "The Tapir," but states that "Ohio possesses several of these effigies, only two of which really resemble anything," referring to the great Serpent Mound in Adams County and the Opossum Mound in Licking County. The opinion of Squier & Davis, as expressed in the second paragraph of the above quotation, to the effect that the Tremper Mound probably was an effigy mound of the same design as those of Wisconsin, was perhaps a natural conclusion, in view of their observations and of what up to that time was known of the mounds and their purpose. As the result of several visits to the Tremper Mound within the past dozen years for the purpose of examining the general form and surrounding of the work, I had fully decided that the mound was not intended as an effigy of an elephant or of any other animal, but was very likely a burial mound belonging to the Hopewell Culture. In many respects it resembled the Seip Mound, 7 along Paint Creek, in Ross County, its irregular form apparently being due to additions made to the great charnelhouse. This opinion is borne out by our present examination, which shows that the Tremper Mound was not intended as an effigy of any kind, but that its shape was entirely the result of additions to the main site or structure, made and completed as needed. On the 21st of July, 1915, was begun the exploration of the Tremper Mound. The examination had as its purpose the exposing to view of the entire site of the mound, the recording of all finds, and the photographing of all important features. The maximum length of the mound as shown by our survey is 250 feet and the maximum width 150 feet, with an average width of 120 feet. Its maximum height is 8 1/2 feet, with an average height of about 5 feet. The solid contents of the mound are approximately 3,000 cubic yards of earth, all of which was examined, after which the mound was restored to its original height and dimensions. The surface of the mound had long been under cultivation and was devoid of trees or undergrowth, which greatly facilitated its examination. For the most part, it was constructed of surface soil secured in close proximity to the mound site, and within the encircling earthwork. Squier & Davis state that the mound is composed of loose broken sandstone and earth; we found but few pieces of sandstone, these occurring only in connection with intrusive burials. Within the body of the mound, now and then, small pockets of gravel were unearthed, while the central portion of the floor, surrounding the large communal grave 7 -Explorations of the Seip mound found in "Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio." Vol. II, Part 1, Mills, 1909. 48 - HISTORY OF OHIO and the cache of artifacts, was covered with fine sand to the depth of several inches. Approximately 600 of these postmolds were noted. Many of them were clean cavities extending both below and above the floor line, this condition being found where the posts had not been entirely consumed in the burning of the structure, leaving them gradually to decay; their places being marked only by the hollow mold. In other instances, the proof of the burning of the structure when its purpose had been served, and preparatory to the erection of the mound, was seen in the partly burned and charred posts. These were present both in the molds, at the floor line, and also where they had fallen during the conflagration, and had been covered before they were consumed. Specimens of the charred sections of posts were taken out intact and placed on display in the Museum. The work of exploration soon disclosed that the Tremper Mound is of the great Hopewell Culture, but, with the possible exception of Mound No. 8, Mound City group, differing in several important particulars from mounds of that culture already explored. 'These differences, which presented themselves as the work of excavation progressed, were the depositing of the ashes from the crematories in communal depositories, the burial of cremated remains beneath the base line of the mound; and the placing of the artifacts of the dead in common caches. In this last respect, Mound No. 8, Mound City group, was analogous, and it is probable that the communal idea extended also to the disposition of the cremated remains, although this, as well as interment of cremated remains below the base line, cannot at present be determined, as the explorations of Squier & Davis in that mound were of so desultory a character as to preclude any very definite or extensive information. Therefore, insofar as actual information goes, the communal character of burial and the sub-base interment of cremated remains are features exclusively of the Tremper Mound. As is to be expected in mounds of the Hopewell Culture, it was found that the site of the Tremper Mound had been occupied by a structure serving as a sacred place, in which the dead were cremated, their ashes deposited in prepared receptacles, and the doubtless intricate ceremonials accompanying these proceedings, including the depositing of implements and ornaments of the deceased, were carried out. The structure proper had been a large oval enclosure, approximately 200 feet long and half as wide. A number of chapel-like additions, possibly to afford- more space or to supplement that of the main structure, had been built from time to time. Upright posts averaging six inches in diameter, set into the ground to a depth of about two and one-half feet, formed the outer walls of the complex structure, as well as the partitions separating them into various compartments. The remains of a sort of wattlework, woven of twigs and limbs was found, which doubtless had been used to close the interstices between the upright posts, which were set about three feet apart. The floor of the area comprising the sacred structure .had been carefully leveled and smoothed, and in places fine sand had been spread out over it. Doubtless parts of the structure at least had some sort of roof or thatch, as indicated by the arrangement of certain of the posts, but no direct evidence of the existence of such a roof was found. "Plan of Floor of Tremper Mound" explains the arrangement of the structure into rooms or compartments. The postmolds indicate the outline of the entire building and of the additions, as well as various partitions and supports. The more important of the additions to the main structure, it will be noted, were on the east and southeast, with others, in the nature of passageways and- enclosures, with openings leading to the interior, principally along the north side. There appear to have been several openings at the extreme west end. It was the covering over with earth of these secondary additions, in constructing the mound, COLONIAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - 49 which gave it the anomalous shape suggesting the erroneous idea of an intentional animal effigy. The great room comprising the central and western portion of the structure, and particularly the south side thereof, was devoted entirely to the care of the dead. Here the greater number of the crematories were located, as well as several small depositories. Of the three large circular additions built onto the east end of the structure, the most southerly, 45 by 50 feet in size, contained three large crematories, and apparently was given over entirely to the purpose of cremation. The floor of this room was covered to a depth of about one inch with charred leaves and straw. The room directly north, being the central one of the three additions at the east end of the main structure, appears to have been given over entirely to the great cache of pipes and associated artifacts, described elsewhere. It contained, however, in addition to the cache, a rectangular prepared basin or depository, unused, a cremated burial of a single individual, and a large fireplace. In this room, the floor of which had been covered with sand, no posts had been placed interiorly. This provided a large space around the fireplace, entirely clear from obstructions, a condition not noted in any other part of the structure. The room just north of the one containing the cache, held a very large prepared depository for the ashes of the dead, and a large fireplace. This room doubtless was the main vault, in which the greater part of the cremated remains from the entire structure were deposited. The smaller additions along the north side appear to have been mainly in the nature of long passageways and small rooms. The floors of these, in great part, were covered with charred leaves, cloth and other charred substances, strewn in places to a depth of several inches. The most definitely outlined of these rooms along the north side appears to have been a veritable workshop and kitchen, the floor being strewn with the bones of animals, such as the deer, elk, bear, turkey and raccoon. None of these bones had been worked, but all were broken, indicating the use of the animals as food. Broken pottery, apparently associated with the preparation and storing of food, was also abundant on this floor, as was Ohio black shale, in pieces of a size suggesting their use in the making of ornaments. Practically the entire floor of this room was covered with mica flakes, in size from the smallest bits to fragments an inch or more in diameter, many of them apparently refuse from the large crystals of mica found in the great cache. To the southeast of this room, and adjacent thereto, was a room, below the floor of which were found the two graves containing cremated burials, and described elsewhere. Study of the map of the floor plan and of the data pertaining to the mound, enables one to picture rather vividly, the activities, carried on doubtless through a considerable length of time, of its builders in disposing of their dead. Cremation was an exclusive practice with the builders of the Tremper mound, not a single instance of uncremated burial beino-s recorded. The uncremated burials found near the top of the mound, and described elsewhere, were of an intrusive nature, and did not pertain to the culture responsible for the building of the mound. The crematories were identical with those found in the Harness and Seip mounds, and others of the same culture explored. They were twelve in number, and were scattered generally through the structure. All showed evidence of long-continued use, and in most of them the presence of charred human remains was noted. They were most in evidence in the large room, at the south center of the structure, which seems to have been especially set apart for this purpose. The crematories were basin-shaped, many of them quite deep. The earth beneath them was burned red for a depth of almost one foot. The placing of the ashes of the dead in prepared communal deposi-