224 - HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY.

CHAPTER II.

THE MIAMI VALLEY--MILITARY EVENTS THAT INFLUENCED ITS SETTLEMENT-THE COMMON HUNTING-GROUNDS FOR THE TRIBES-DESCRIPTION OF STREAMS. HILLS AND BOTTOMS-COLONISTS PUSHING THROUGH TO THE WEST-CAPT. BULLIT-INDIAN ALARM AND HOSTILITIES-COL. BOWMAN'S EXPEDITION TO OLD CHILLICOTHE-SPEEDY RETALIATION-HARD WINTER OF 1780--LOCATION OF OHIO TRIBES-THEIR STRENGTH-NOTED CHIEFTAINS-INDIAN VILLAGE LIFE-MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS--HUNTING, TRAPPING, FISHING-WAR PARTIES CRUELTIES.

IT is proper, in writing the history of Montgomery County, to give the military necessities and events that influenced the settlement of the Miami Valley. The territory lying between the Miami Rivers, with the Ohio on the south and Mad River at the north, has not been occupied by Indian villages or wigwams since the year 1700. The valley seems to have been reserved by common consent of the tribes as hunting grounds from which to supply their war parties and villages with meat. Over hill and dale stretched a dense, undisturbed forest, scattered through it were little patches of prairie and areas of wet land. Arrow heads, implements and other Indian relics, formerly so often found on the hills and in the fields, and even now occasionally picked up, must have been left here years before that.

Bands of warriors, in passing up and down, used one of the two trails; the one west of the Big Miami, the other east of the Little Miami River, running north from the Ohio River to the Shawnee towns, at Old Chillicothe (three miles north of Xenia), the Piqua towns on the Mad River seventeen miles above Dayton, and on up to the Mackacheek towns at the head-waters of Mad River; the trail to the west from the Ohio below the mouth of the Big Miami leading on up, passing west of Hamilton, just east of Eaton, through Fort Jefferson and Greenville, to the portage at Loramie, and branching from there to the villages north and west. The head-waters of the two Miamis, Scioto, Mad River, Stillwater, the Wabash, Maumee and Sandusky Rivers, drain the same level lands of Central Ohio and Indiana.

In the early days, they were the black swamp lands, the storage ponds, the sources of supply, that kept the rivers at a tolerably even stage of water through the summer seasons. After continued rains, the whole Miami Valley would be inundated, sometimes for weeks. Drifting sand and gravel, forming bars, often changed the channel. The principal feeders of the Big Miami on the west were Loramie's Creek, Stillwater (formerly known as the Southwest Branch), Twin Creek and Whitewater; all of them navigable for batteaux and flat boats.

Beautiful, clear running Mad River is the only stream of any consequence that drains from the east; originating in a little crystal lake, it is fed all the way by springs and rapid little branches. he broad Miami Valley was a Continuation of rolling, heavily wooded lands, the forest opening here and there into moist levels of waving wild grasses. The rich bottoms were not so heavily timbered, were quite free of undergrowth, yet covered with a tangled mass of vines, bushes and weeds. A wild region in its natural state was this valley at the time of the French movements for control of the territory and its Indian trade; and subsequently, during the English campaigns against the French,

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HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY. - 227

the movement of troops was to the eastward, and the Miami country still remained undisturbed, excepting by the English traders who located at the Loramie portage in 1749, and the capture of that post by the French three years later.

The war furnished the opportunity to the colonists to learn more of the Western country, and the information acquired increased the desire to go West. As early as 1771, the glowing descriptions of the beauty and fertility of Kentucky lands determined many of the more venturesome to seek there for homes. In the year 1773, a company of Virginians accompanied a surveying party down the Kanawha and Ohio to Limestone Creek, where Maysville now stands. At that point, Capt. Thomas Bullit left the party, and alone crossed into Ohio, and on up through the woods to the Shawnee town, Old Chillicothe, to get consent of the Indians for his intended settlement at the falls of the Ohio. He was not seen by the Indians until he arrived in the town, waving a white handkerchief as a flag of truce. The savages, although thoroughly surprised, crowded around him to ascertain his business; and from the novelty of his coming, the courage displayed, and the pleasant address of the Captain, they quickly became friendly, consenting to his proposed settlement south of the Ohio.

Thus fully successful, he returned to his party and descended with them to the falls. As other settlers began to arrive in the West, and it was demonstrated to the Indians that their hunting-grounds would be interfered with, and that, unless emigration were checked, settlements would be made north of the Ohio, they commenced hostilities against the whites. Boats along the Ohio River were constantly being attacked, and the emigrants murdered; explorers and other small parties were killed and scalped wherever found. Retaliation quickly followed, attended by all the horrors of savage border warfare.

A history of these thrilling events, occurring as the tide of emigration to Kentucky lands increased, gradually, from the year 1775 until the treaty at Fort Harmar in 1789, would require more space than is deemed proper to devote in giving the record of events that influenced the settlement of this county.

Whatever may have led to the unfriendly situation between the whites and the savages of the West, certain it is that, after the cold blooded murder at Point Pleasant, in the summer of 1777, of Cornstalk, the great chieftain of the Scioto Shawnees, the young warrior, Red Hawk, and Ellinipsico, the son of Cornstalk, there could be no hope of peace.

The settlements in Kentucky suffered terribly from incursions of war parties from the savage tribes of the North, creating a malignant spirit of revenge among the whites that led to acts of brutality scarcely less atrocious than the cruelties of the savages. The British commander at Fort Detroit encouraged the formation of war parties for attacks upon emigrants along the Upper Ohio, and for murderous expeditions against the feeble stations in Kentucky.

The trails leading south on the east side of the Little Miami and on the west side of the Big Miami were constantly used by the warriors, while they were supplied with meat by parties in the valleys. They would cross the Ohio, attack small stations in Kentucky, carry off prisoners and plunder, retreat rapidly, and thus escape punishment. In 1778, Daniel Boone was captured in Kentucky by one of these parties and taken to the Shawnee town at Old Chillicothe, near Xenia. In the summer of the same year, these Indians formed an expedition of 450 warriors to attack Boonesboro, in Kentucky. Boone escaped from them and notified the inhabitants of their coming.

His escape caused a delay of the expedition for several weeks. On the 8th of August, about five hundred warriors, armed and painted, appeared before the fort at Boonesboro and demanded its immediate surrender; Capt. Du Quesne, a British officer, was in command of the invaders, and a British flag was their standard. Good treatment was guaranteed if the post was surrendered, but, if

228 - HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY.

resistance were offered, no quarter could be expected. After two days' parley, Boone notified Du Quesne that he and his comrades were prepared to defend the fort to the last. The attack was commenced at once, and lasted ten days, resulting in a final repulse of the enemy with a loss of thirty seven killed and many wounded. The loss to the garrison was two men killed and four wounded. During the spring of the next year (1779), the woods were filled with small bands of Indians; the Kentucky settlements were kept in constant excitement. Large war parties came from the north in canoes down the Great Miami River. Camps were formed at the mouth of Hole's Creek, and at the "big prairie" below Middletown. Then the savages divided into smaller bands to annoy emigrant boats along the Ohio, and the stations over about Lexington, Ky.

The Indians seemed to have grown desperate in their efforts to regain control of the Ohio Valley, and their devilish ingenuity was constantly developing fresh outrages and barbarous ways of torture. In July, these scalping parties were so numerous, and had grown so bold in their operations, that it became necessary to organize a force for protection. Col. John Bowman was given the command, and it was decided to march to the Shawnee town, Old Chillicothe, on the Little Miami River. Crossing the Ohio at the mouth of the Licking River, the force of 160 men made a rapid march, arriving near the Indian town the second night, without being discovered. At daylight, the attack was made, but, from mismanagement, ended in a repulse A number of ponies were captured, sufficient to mount the entire command, and the retreat was at once ordered.

They were closely pursued by the Indians until they had re-crossed the Ohio River, having lost nine men.

This, the first expedition into the Miami Valley by the frontiersmen, was unsuccessful, and, as it turned out, was extremely unfortunate. The warriors remained along the Ohio between the two Miamis for some time, and were there in October, when Col. David Rogers and Capt. Robert Benham, with a hundred men, were passing up the river in two keel boats. A few of the savages were seen, and one half the command was landed to attempt their capture; Col. Rogers soon found his mistake, and that he had been led into an ambush of four or five hundred Indians. A desperate fight ensued, but the gallant commander and nearly all his men were tomahawked and scalped. Capt. Robert Benham, who, with a few of his men, cut their way through the lines, was shot through both hips, but was able to crawl into the top of a fallen tree and lie concealed. The Indians were passing back and forth over the battle ground all night and for nearly two days. The evening of the second day, Benham shot a coon that was on a tree near him, hoping in some way to get to it, make a fire and cook it. As soon as he had fired, he heard some one call, very near him; supposing it to be an Indian, he hastily reloaded his gun and kept quiet; soon the same call was heard again, but much nearer; still Benham did not reply, but sat ready to fire as soon as the party should appear. The call was made the third time, followed by expressions of distress that convinced Benham that it must be a Kentuckian; he then replied, and the parties were soon together. There sat Benham, shot through both hips, and unable to move! The man proved to be John Watson, a soldier, who had both arms broken by a bullet in the same battle. Benham, having the use of his arms, could easily kill all the game they wanted, while Watson, with two good legs, could kick the dead game to where Benham sat, who would clean and cook it.

When their wounds had somewhat healed, they built a small but near the river, to watch for a passing boat.

November 27, a flat-boat was seen slowly floating down the river. The wounded men hoisted a signal; but the crew, supposing it to be an Indian de-

HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY. - 229

coy, put over to the opposite side of the river and passed down as rapidly as possible. At length, when the boat was about half a mile below, a canoe was sent ashore to reconnoiter, which, after a lengthy parley, landed and took the two sufferers aboard. At Louisville, receiving proper treatment, they soon recovered the use of their limbs.

But for the successful operations of Col. George Rogers Clark in the Illinois country, the year 1779 would have left the Western people in an uncomfortable situation; as it was, however, emigration greatly increased, reviving the spirits of the settlers, giving them a confidence in their ability to resist the invasions of the savages.

From the crops harvested, there was but little surplus with which to supply the new-comers. The winter of 1779-80 was long known as the " hard winter; " everything was frozen up, and the ground was covered with snow for many weeks; many emigrant families suffered from hunger and exposure, and arrived at the Kentucky stations in almost destitute condition. Bears, buffalo, deer, wolves, beavers, otter and wild turkeys were frozen to death; wild animals would come up to the camps in a famishing condition, with the perishing cattle. The three months of severe winter ended, a delightful spring, and the rapid growth of vegetation, promised speedy relief from hardships, and the settlers might look forward to a season of plenty and happiness.

LOCATION OF OHIO INDIAN TRIBES.

The tribes that occupied and owned the territory now within the State of Ohio were the Eries, Mingoes (of Ohio), Delawares, Munsees, Shawnees, Wyandots, Miamis, Senecas (of Sandusky); the Piankeshaws, Pottawatomies and Ottawas were along the Maumee and around Detroit; the Weas, Eel River Indians and Kickapoos were the Wabash tribes that so often united with the Miami tribes in their expeditions down the Miami and across into Kentucky. The Eries, a strong nation, whose towns were located along the southern shore of Lake Erie, were entirely exterminated by the Six Nations of New York at some time before the year 1680. The Delaware nation were the tribes who had ceded to William Penn the lands along the Delaware River and around the Delaware Bay, and afterward removed to the West, locating in the Muskingum Valley, and to the east of that. The Munsees were one of the tribes of Delawares. The Shawnee Indians were natives of the South, but, being conquered by the Cherokees, they left the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and came to the Ohio Valley about the year 1 7 40, locating in the Scioto Valley-a warlike and brave people, cruel in the extreme, proud, and most successful hunters. Their principal towns were at first located on the north bank of the Ohio, above and below the mouth of the Scioto River, but, after the Ohio began to be used so much as a highway for emigrant boats, they moved further up the Scioto, and afterward built their principal towns, the one at Old Chillicothe on the Little Miami River, and the other, Old Piqua, on the north side of Mad River, seventeen miles above Dayton; they at the same time located the Mackacheek towns around the headwaters of Mad River. These tribes were among the first and most vicious in harassing parties along the river, and in the settlements of Kentucky, and were the last to make peace with the whites. The grand forests of the Miami Valley were their game preserves, and jealously did they guard them against the encroachments of their hated neighbors, the pioneers of Kentucky.

The powerful Wyandots lived around Sandusky Bay and up the valley to the headwaters of Sandusky Ri ver; they were one of the leading nations of the Northwest, the beautiful traditions of the' tribes running back for more than a century. They made common cause with the Shawnees and Miamis against the whites, their warriors always joining in the expeditions to the Ohio; the young bucks

230 - HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY.

of these tribes would form small hunting parties to roam through the woods of Southwestern Ohio, remaining away from their towns for a year at a time; occasionally as scalping parties, ranging along the banks of the Ohio, and over among the settlements of Central Kentucky, retreating to the Miami Valley to escape the vengeance of the pursuing settlers.

The Miami nation of Indians was the Western Confederacy of tribes, as opposed to the Six Nations (Iroquois) of New York; the Twightwees, Tawas and Miami tribes, of the Miamis, occupied the level lands drained by the streams that formed the sources of the Great Miami, the Maumee and the Wabash Rivers a stretch of country from the Loramie portage across to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee Valley. The Miamis were conspicuous in their hostilities to the whites, making long expeditions to engage in the border attacks, and, with the Wyandots and Ottawas, were the steady allies of the English in all campaigns against the Western settlements.

The Chippewas were the Michigan Indians in the Saginaw country, many large tribes.

The Mingoes (of Ohio) were located along the eastern border of Ohio; then east and north of them were the Six Nations of New York.

The Weas, Piankeshaws and Kickapoos, as has already been stated, were in the Wabash Valley.

STRENGTH OF THE TRIBES.

The following list shows the number of warriors in the several tribes who could, upon short notice, be assembled for war against the settlements:

Shawnees.......................................................... 400

Wyandots........................................ ................ 300

Delawares and Munsees..................................... 600

Miamis............................................................ 300

Pottawatomies............................................ ....... 400

Ottawas........................................................... 600

Mingoes (of Ohio.................................................. 600

Weas, Piankeshaws and Kickapoos....................... 800

Total ......................................................... 4,000

Six Nations oŁ New York Mohawks...................... 100

Oneidas and Tuscaroras.......................................... 400 Cayugas........................................................... 220

Onondagas........................................................ 230 Senecas........................................................... 650

Total ......................................................... 1.600

The Chippewas of the upper lakes were estimated to be as strong as all of the above named tribes together.

The main object of all the treaties with the Indians by the United States during the Revolutionary war was to keep them quiet, and persuade them not to molest the settlements.

Cornstalk, the great war chieftain of the Shawnees; Pontiac, of the Ottawas; and Logan, of the Cayugas, were dead; they had been the sachems, the great leaders, of the united Indian nations; although savages, yet possessed of great natural intelligence and experience, gifted with eloquence, brave in every situation and emergency, they acquired unbounded influence among the tribes, and, from their high sense of justice, the respect of the Western settlers. After them, there was no great leader to unite the savages against the colonists until, in 1805, Tecumseh, and his brother, Laulewasikaw the Prophet rose to prominence among the Shawnees, and finally uniting warriors of all Western and Northern tribes as allies of the British against the United States. During

HISTORY OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY. - 231

the colonial war, and until the organization of the Northwestern Territory, there were chiefs and braves among the tribes who inclined to peace, and held at least one half of the warriors from alliance with the British. Of the chiefs who distinguished themselves in the campaigns between the years 1780 and 1795, we give the list from the tribes that operated in border attacks along the Ohio River, and in the territory between that river and Lake Erie.

Shawnees-White Cap (the principal chief), Red Pole, Long Shanks, Capt. Reed, Black Hoof, Blue Jacket, Civil Man, Black Wolf, Snake, Turkey, Cornstalk, Kakiapilathy (the Tame Hawk), Capt. Johnny.

Wyandots-Tarhe, the Crane, a tall chief, handsome, and of splendid physique, attained some reputation as a warrior, and, in his policy after the treaty at Greenville, generally favored the United States. Other influential chiefs of this tribe were: The Half King, and his son, Cherokee Boy; Leather Lips, Black Chief, Walk in the Water, Big Arm.

Delawares-Capt. Pipe, the war chief; Three Chiefs, Wicocalind, or White Eyes; Kelelamand, or Col. Henry; and Hengue Pushees, or the Big Cat, who were always friendly to the Western settlers; Grand Glaize King, Killbuck, Capt. Buffalo, Capt. Crow, Red Feather, Bohongehelas, Black King, Billy Siscomb.

Munsees-Hawkinpumiska, Reyutueco, Peyainawksey, Puckconsittond.

Senecas-Coffee Houn, Wiping Stick, Big Turtle, Civil John.

Miarnis-Meshekenoghqua, the Little Turtle, the celebrated chief, the most famous forest warrior and distinguished leader of his time He had command of all Indian allies of the British against Harmar in 1790, St. Clair in 1791, Wilkinson in 1792, Wayne in 1793, 1794 and 1795. Nagohquangogh, or Le Grris, was the village chief of the Miamis, a sensible old Indian of great influence in his own tribe and among the neighboring tribes. In their hostilities to the whites, the Miamis devoloped a number of skilled chieftains, the most noted of which were: The White Loon, Long Legs, Richeville, The Owl, White Skin, Silver Heels, Big Man, Double Tooth, Crooked, Porcupine, Sunrise, King Bird, Big Body, Stone Eater. Poor Raccoon, Open Hand, Young Wolf, Butterfly, Tiger's Face, Flat Belly.

Pottawatomies-Windigo, Nawac, White Pigeon, Winnemac, Five Medals, Thupenebue, Run, Le Blacc, No Name, Mogawgo. The Black Bird was also one of the leading warriors of the tribe.

Ottawas-Wewiskia, Augooshaway, Little Otter, Dog, Bear's Legs, Stumptail Bear, Neagey. Machiwetah, Big Bowl, Sawgamaw, White Fisher, Bear King.

Piankeshaws-Big Corn, Black Dog, Three Thighs, Lightning.

Weas-Little Beaver, Painted Pole, Negro Legs, Little Fog, Little Eyes, Long Body.

Eel River-Ploughman. Night Stander, Charley, Gun, Earth, Swallow.

Kickapoos-Keeawhah, Cat, Otter, Duck, Persuader, Brave, Josey Renard, Standing, Black Tree, White Blanket, Bear, Dirty Face.

Chippewas-Mesass, one of the chief counselors and leading warriors of the many tribes of Chippewas; Bad Bird, Young Ox, Little Bear, Young Boy, Bad Legs, Little Thunder, Cat Fish. Big Cloud, Spark of Fire, Ball.

Sacs--Tepakee, Kesheyiva.

INDIAN VILLAGE LIFE.

The towns and villages of the Indians inhabiting the valleys of the Miami, Maumee and Wabash Rivers, were located immediately upon the banks of the streams, on ground high enough to be out of the reach of floods. But little attention was paid to the locations, as positions for defense, except that a spot

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free from timber was generally selected, and a place where the canoes could be easily landed, and the squaws have easy access to water. The strength of a village could be easily estimated, as lodges, wigwams and cabins were invariably placed in one line along the stream; some of the towns extended thus for two or three miles along the river.

The wigwams were constructed in a substantial way to resist wind and storm, and to keep the occupants comfortable through the winter season; some were large and roomy, twenty feet in diameter; others were smaller: circular or oval shaped, made of bark or matting laid over a frame work of poles that were stuck in the ground and leaning to the top, where an opening was left for the escape of smoke from the fire beneath. In the winter, these wigwams were also lined with matting, tastily made of rushes, grasses and reeds; bunks were made of poles, with skins and furs for bedding, the interior of the wigwam being cozily arranged and kept tidy and clean by the squaws; two openings were left on opposite sides, either to be used, according to the direction of the wind.

Cabins were arranged on the inside like the wigwams just described; the roofs were of bark or matting; a hole was left in the center for smoke to escape; a mat or skin was hung in the doorway. "Lodges" were not often found in the villages, being mostly used for temporary habitation in hunting camps, sugar camps, and in the war camps that were sometimes formed as a base for operations at any great distance from the towns. Lodges were built in this way: A frame was formed by planting the ends of half hoops in the ground, the hoops one behind the other, about two feet apart; a ridge pole, or thong of hide, was fastened on top from bow to bow; over the whole of it. matting or skins of wild animals were spread: the occupants slept on the ground, the cooking being done in the open air.

Corn, beans, pumpkins and tobacco were the crops raised by the Indians; the tilled ground was not fenced; the animals were pastured at some distance from the villages to prevent injury to growing crops. By some of the tribes, fruit was also grown; the trees were seedlings grown from seed purchased of the traders. After the trading stations had been established in the West, the rude implements and tools used by the Indians were replaced with those better adapted to the cultivation of the soil, and for other domestic purposes. Steel traps took the place of " dead falls" and "pits; " awls and needles made of the bones of birds were no longer used in sewing garments and fitting the matting to the wigwams; cultivation was accomplished with the iron hoe, and better cooking utensils were supplied.

MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS.

The burdens and toil of Indian life were the duties of the squaws; they built the wigwams and cabins, performed all the village drudgery and home work, cared for the dogs and ponies, gathered the fuel, planted the seed, cultivated the soil and harvested the crops, cut up and jerked the game brought in by the hunters, cooked, made the clothing, and, when on journeys, carried great bundles of the camp equipage; the responsibility of the care of the families and wigwams was upon them; they were neat and tidy in their habits, and kept everything clean about the villages. 'they were uncomplaining, and not quarrelsome. (The reader must remember that we are now writing of the Indians as they were and lived during the last half of last century.) A squaw who would utter a groan, or cry, in childbed, would be forever disgraced, as unworthy to be a mother, and it was believed that her offspring could not fail of being cowards. The squaws were not demonstrative, as a rule, but were thoroughly loyal to the family relations; separations were of rare occurrence, though for cause an Indian might send his squaw away.

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The wigwam government was adapted to their modes of life; of course the warrior was boss of all; his wishes were obeyed without question, his word was law; the papooses were not noisy; they were allowed to roll around the floor of the wigwam in cold or stormy weather, and in the open air during the milder seasons; to carry them about, they were slung to the squaw's back; to leave them alone in the wigwams, they were bound to a board longer than them selves, and stood away in the corner. The younger Indians were never whipped, and were scarcely ever scolded; constant attention was given to their training, that they might grow in experience to meet the necessities and ways of Indian life; they were taught to observe what they believed to be right; were pointed to examples of bad Indians, and that such were despised by everybody; they were shown examples of braves, and honest Indians whom all respected, as worthy of imitation.

After boys were at the hunting age, they were no longer under the government of the squaws, but were kept hunting all the time; from early spring until winter set in, they lived along the streams, learning to swim, to paddle canoes, to build canoes, to fish and trap; they roamed through the woods; learning to shoot and hunt, acquiring the knowledge of woodcraft and the hardships of out door life. The young of both sexes developed early; at the age of fifteen, the boys were free to come and go without restraint; two years younger than that, the girls were budding into squawhood. and it was a rare thing for a young squaw to reach the age of fifteen before being appropriated by some young buck lover Courtship and marriage among the Indians were not attended with any very great delays or ceremony; when a brave was attracted by the good features and figure of a handsome and tidy young squaw. greased, painted and full feathered, in all the pomp and pride of a warrior, he would walk down the village street until, arriving before the wigwam of his inamorata. he stopped; then, if his advances were at all encouraged, it was considered as an acceptance, and they were quickly paired; they were mated without being required to ask consent of any one, and without interference from any source. If the weather was favorable for out-door enjoyment, a feast and dance would sometimes be arranged, in which old and young would participate, keeping up the merry-making until all were tired out.

In moving from one village to another, as families often did, the squaws, as under all other circumstances, had all the work to do. The wigwam goods were tied in great bundles and fastened on the backs of the ponies, or carried on the backs of the squaws, if there were not ponies enough. Riding or walking, the squaws carried the papooses on their backs. Pelts were used in lieu of saddles, and buck and squaw rode alike-straddle. A halt was made for dinner, but the ponies were not unloaded except at night. There was but little trouble with the youngsters, or papooses; they were trained to be quiet, and scarcely ever cried. It was a funny sight to see the little papooses, lashed to forked sticks, leaning against the stumps or trees at these midday halts.

Upon arrival at the new location, it was the squaw's duty to cut the poles and erect the wigwam, and arrange all for the comfort of her warrior; and, as we have said before, the interior of these wigwams were kept neat and clean, the sides lined with furs or matting for warmth; a cheerful fire blazing in the center made an attractive picture, as a place of shelter from any storm-an abode of comfort. In going to bed, the bucks pulled off all clothing but their breechclouts, and the squaws all but the skirt; the clothing thus taken off was used for pillows.

Indian dress in the earlier times was exclusively made of furs and skins. Great taste was shown in making the garments, and in the arrangement of the ornaments used, such as shells, beads (made of fish scales), and beautifully col-

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ored grasses and feathers. Indian tanned skins have always commanded the highest prices. After the French occupation of the Western country (1750), cloth began to be used by the squaws in making clothing for themselves and the youngsters; the brighter colors were the most popular--anything so it was red, suited the savage taste. Warriors, old and young, were the most particular as to their personal appearance. The hair was pulled out by the roots all over their heads, except a tuft on top, left as the scalplock; to this was fastened the plume of feathers; nose and ears were pierced for rings of lead or copper: their bodies were left bare to the waist, and profusely painted: many wore hand some belts of wampum across the shoulder. The breech-clout was a piece of linen, cloth or pelt, nearly a yard long, and eight or nine inches wide; this passed under the belt before and behind, leaving the ends to hang loosely over the belt; leggins were made long to be fastened to the belt; the hips were thus left exposed. Moccasins covered the feet, and the ankles were closely wrapped. When expeditions to distant points were to be made, a fringed and ornamented shirt was worn to protect the body from the bushes.

Thus dressed in the gorgeously colored deerskin suit, wearing the wampum, with rifle, bullet-pouch and powder-horn, a glistening tomahawk and scalping-knife hanging in his belt, the brave was ready for the war-path. Hunters, like the warriors, were dressed in full suits of deer-skin, but the decorations were not so profuse.

The squaws dressed in the gayest costumes their tastes could suggest; beautifully worked moccasins. soft deer-skin leggins. richly fringed and decorated in the brightest colors, with beads, shells and spangles; pendants and necklaces were worn, strings of ornaments of bear's tusks and claws, stone medals and ear-rings; plump arms and busts exposed, except as partially hidden by the bands of beads and ornaments; beautifully developed, tail and graceful dusky belles. In the every-day village life, they wore an under-garment and skirt; in winter, furs were almost universally worn.

Whether buck, squaw or papoose, one act of cowardice or dishonesty was a lifelong disgrace to an Indian. Reverence and honor were paid to the aged, especially to parents. They were not quarrelsome or covetous. The sick were tenderly nursed, and the disabled properly cared for.

There was general pride in the skill of the hunters and achievements of the warriors. The taking of the first scalp by a young warrior was an occasion of special excitement and rejoicing. The return of a party from the warpath, or from a hunting expedition, was always attended with public reception in the villages; but, after the rejoicings were ended, the lazy life of the heroes began, and if winter had set in, they had nothing to do but to lie around until the spring should come; smoke their pipes in peace while telling of the adventures of the past; there was very little else to interest them. On bright days, they sometimes got up a little excitement over a game of football, or a footrace; occasionally there was a dance or a feast, but, as a rule, the winters were passed in idleness. Smoking was their comfort; pipes and tobacco were enjoyed under all conditions, whether half-snoozing in the bunks, or lolling in the sunshine outside, the pipes were made of corn-cobs, clay, stone and wood.

In the wigwams and villages, with the warriors and hunters, between the old and young, in all situations of life among the Indians, there was perfect equality. In their character and conduct were seen a strong sense of independence, a great aversion to anything that looked like caste or subjugation. They gloried in their native liberty, and for one of them to show a feeling of superiority was an effective barrier to all further success. A chief, being asked if his tribe were free, replied: "Why not, since I myself am free, although their chief?" The chief of a tribe was not a ruler; he could neither make peace or war, and, except as others were guided by his example, he had no control of

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affairs. A brave was chosen war chief upon his own merit as a warrior, as one of exceptional bravery and skill; the village chief was selected as one possessing administrative ability, of commanding address and great eloquence, well versed in the traditions of the tribe, and their relations to neighboring tribes. Possessing these distinguishing traits of character and influence, by reason of which they were the chosen leaders of the tribes, it was equally necessary for each to maintain his standing as warrior and hunter. For purposes of consultation, and as a place to assemble the chiefs and braves, a council-house was usually built near the center of the village. There all met on an equality to determine questions of common interest; the calumet of peace and war were placed side by side, the choice to be made by the signal taps of the war clubs. There the Indian orators gave vent to bursts of native eloquence, for which they were so justly famous. It was at these councils that opportunity was afforded to acquire popularity and influence that would promote the speaker to position and authority. Graceful form, with proud demeanor, were great elements of popularity, for pride was one of the controlling influences of their religion. They believed that the Great Spirit was Ruler over all, and that He was an Indian. Manitou was the name most generally given to the Great Spirit. The Indians believed that they were the first of the human race created, that they sprang from the brain of the Great Spirit; that they possessed all knowledge, and were under the special care of their Creator. Their traditions were vague, but their religious sentiments were clear. They had no fixed days or manners of worship. They believed in a future state of reward and punishment in the "happy hunting-grounds " beyond the grave; that " all who do well .will be happy, but those who do bad will be miserable; " they justified the barbarous outrages of their savage warfare, their cruel torture of men, women and children. upon the precept of blood for blood; and among themselves, as one of their chieftains said, they let each individual " paddle his own canoe." What principles of religion they had, they followed closely. They believed in a good spirit and an evil spirit, and a number of inferior deities that were active in managing the affairs of the universe. To these they made sacrifices to avert calamity, to secure blessings and success, and in the way of thanksgiving for benefits received. They believed firmly in punishment and reward in this life.

The medicine men, who had care of the sick, and were in charge of all religious feasts and observances, were held in great respect, as possessors of supernatural power. By the practice of their magic art, they were supposed to have close relations with the Great Spirit. Their medicines, made from roots and herbs, were, in their use, surrounded with all mystery possible; all the arts of the conjurer were solemnly practiced.

Indian burials were conducted with as much form as any of their ceremonies. In the grave with the corpse were buried the rifle and trappings of the warrior, or hunter, his pipe and tobacco, and a sufficient quantity of parched corn or other provisions to last him on his journey to the happy hunting grounds of the future life. There was no common place for the burial of the dead, each grave being located in the forests or on the hills, to suit the wishes of the surviving friends. When an Indian or his squaw died, the widower or widow would remain in mourning for about a year, after which being at liberty to mate again. The regular times for feasts were when the green corn could first be used; in the hunting-camps, when the first game was killed; the war feast was celebrated after a victory, and there were great festivities in the villages upon the return of the warriors, or of a hunting party. Notice of a feast was given by sending a runner to the wigwams with small pieces of decorated wood; the bearer would verbally give all particulars as to time and preparations. Bucks, squaws and the young Indians would be seated. on the ground around the fires,

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on which were boiling the kettles of green corn, juicy venison and bear meat, pots of fat coon and hominy. Warriors dressed for the trail, with waving plumes, military trappings and dangling decorations; squaws wearing bright colored skirts and strings of flashing ornaments, their black hair hanging in long braids; papooses rolling on the green sward, waiting for bowls of the rich mess. Each with wooden bowl and spoon would help themselves from the vessels; then, with sugar or molasses as dressing, the abundant feast was enjoyed. None but the warriors participated in the wild excitement of the wardance, but the young Indians were allowed to look on, as a preparation for participation in the strategems, horrid deeds, cruelties and bloody tragedies of savage warfare. There were other dances that young and old joined with loud shoutings, and the clangor of tomtoms and other rude instruments; winding dances, with intricate figures, like the popular " German" of to-day; wild-like square dances, in which the coy squaw maiden might show her preference for some handsome warrior or hunter. These dances were continued into the night, lighted by the blazing big fires.

The sports and pastimes of the savages were in character more in the way of preparation and incentive to the objects and pursuits of savage life; such as running races, jumping, wrestling, shooting, canoe races, throwing the toma hawk, practice with the bow and arrows; foot-ball was a very popular game, the excitement sometimes lasting for several days, and involving the whole village in the sport.

Whisky drinking was one of the first of habits, peculiar to the whites, adopted by the Indians, and has done more to take away from them that noble nature and independent character with which they were so marked at the beginning of the present century. The leading chieftains of most of the tribes recognized and fought the habit as the most dangerous foe to their followers; yet, whether in hunting camp or on the war trail, the Indians were ever ready for a carouse. They entered upon a spree deliberately. Guns, ammunition, warclubs, tomahawks and scalping-knives were laid aside, and two of the Indians selected by lot to stay sober and keep the rest from injuring one another.

The Miami Rivers, and streams flowing into them, were favorite spawning and feeding waters for the choice varieties of the larger kinds of fishes, and, during the months of cool weather, many were taken by the Indians, in wicker traps and baskets, and by spearing. The young Indians had great sport in following the larger fish on the shoals and rapids, killing numbers with spears and arrows, and in the winter, through the ice, would spear many in the same way.

Trapping was the most profitable pursuit followed; besides being a good school for the young Indians, it furnished employment for the villagers who were old, or who by accident or the fortunes of war were incapacitated for more active duty. It sometimes happened, when the season was favorable and game unusually plenty, that the whole tribe would devote the winter to the traps that were located at all favorable points along the streams, or occupy a stretch of country for thirty miles across the valleys.

The skins of muskrats, mink, and the smaller animals, were sought; beaver, otter, coon and bear skins were more valuable, and all were in great demand at the trading stations North and East. The great abundance of game in the woods, the rich soil of the valleys of the Northwest, in which were located the villages and cultivated lands of the savages, were unfailing sources of supply. Knowledge in woodcraft, ways of life in the forests, were the first necessities of savage life; a single individual, or a small band of hunters, would leave the villages, to be gone several months, or even for a year; rifle, ammunition, tomahawk, pipe, tobacco and scalping-knife, were the only requirements. Selecting some point as a center in the territory to be hunted, some slight shelter of poles

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or brush would be set up, and without delay traps would be set and hunting begin, to be followed with energy and the closest attention. If the season proved profitable, of course there were more pelts and meat secured than could be carried in one load back to the village, or to a trading post; but the hunter who had started alone, would, without help, bring his game in; he would arrange a load and carry it one day's journey, where he would secure it on an elevated platform of poles, or hang it in a tree secure from the wolves, while he returned for another load; in this way, the bear meat and venison, smaller game, furs and pelts were transported.

Hunting expeditions that were organized in the early spring, in the fall, and sometimes in midwinter, afforded an exciting change for numbers of the Indians, their squaws, youngsters and papooses: the transportation might be in canoes, or the camp equipage be carried across the country by the squaws or on ponies. All work and care of the camp would be done by the squaws; they would build the lodges and huts; being located near a stream, they would not have far to fetch water or wood; they cured the meat, tanned the skins, cooked, pastured the ponies, gathered eggs from nests of the forests, pounded the hominy, tapped the sugar trees, collected the water and boiled it down; and, when the hunters were unusually successful, or a large number of animals were taken in the traps, the squaws would be sent out along the line to bring in on their backs heavy burdens of venison and bear meat and pelts, from the scaffolds on which the game had been placed out of the reach of wolves and other wild animals.

Having the benefit of association with experienced, skillful hunters, on expeditions of this kind, the Indian boys learned the mysteries of woodcraft and the application of expedients in almost every emergency. One great accomplishment acquired was to be able to imitate notes and calls of the game birds, and the noise of the beasts of the forests; the possession of this imitative faculty was considered the highest stamp of a good hunter and gallant brave. The turkey call, and harsher notes of wild duck and goose, would serve as a perfect decoy; imitation of the bleating of a fawn would bring a doe within rifle range; the too-hoot of the owl would bring response from the wolves, if they were around. Warriors on the war-path used these calls as signals, in an open attack on an enemy by day, or when gathered around a cabin or settlement for massacre at night; so much so that the settlers were always suspicious when they heard the notes or call of any of the birds or beasts of the woods.

A war party was the most carefully-organized band that left the villages; the numbers of which it was composed depended, of course, upon the character of the duty to be performed. One or two braves might start on a bushwhacking, scalping expedition of their own; a band of five or six might go to destroy one or two isolated cabins and massacre the inmates: and larger parties formed to attack the settlements, or divide at a supply camp, for attacks on emigrant boats descending the Ohio. In starting from a village, the warriors were decorated with paint and plumes, wearing frill military trappings; marching down the street thus thoroughly armed, they set off in single file on some trail leading through the woods to the Ohio River, and the Kentucky settlements beyond. When fairly in the forest, out of sight of the village, it was customary to fire a farewell salute; then, fully impressed with the dangers around them, perfect silence prevailed through day and night, on the march or at the bivouac, or whatever might be their surroundings.

When parties of this kind were sent out by the Shawnees, the Wyandots or the Miamis, or any of the tribes to the north of the Maumee, it was their custom, within a few days after their departure, to send as a re-enforcement, or rather support in case of reverses and pursuit, a band of hunters, with squaws and camp equipage, to locate an advanced supply camp somewhere in the Miami

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or Scioto Valley; the party would come down the river in canoes to the mouth of the Mad River, Hole's Creek, Twin Creek, or lower down at the head of Mill Creek, or at the mouth of either of the Miamis, where the lodges would be built, the hunters go out for supplies to be ready for the return of the warriors. The return of a war party to the villages was always the time for the greatest excitement and rejoicing; fleet-footed runners were sent ahead to notify the vil lagers that the warriors were approaching. All would turn out to join in the noisy reception: when in sight of the village, if they brought prisoners with them, the warriors would fire their rifles, while the woods resounded with peal after peal of the shrill, piercing scalp halloo; the Indians in the village would immediately respond with a similar shriek, as they rushed out to meet the party returning in triumph, with shouts of victory, some waving the bloody scalps, torn from dying victims, while others led the prisoners, who were stripped naked, their hands tied behind them, faces and bodies blackened as a mark that they were to be burned at the stake. But they were first to run the gauntlet. Indians of all ages, bucks and squaws, standing at intervals of six or eight feet apart, armed with sticks, clubs and switches, formed two parallel lines about six feet apart, between which lines the victims were to run singly, receiving a blow from each of the Indians as he passed; blows that were struck fierce and fast, in the face, on the head, or wherever it could be inflicted; sometimes, to impede progress, handfuls of sand were dashed in their eyes. Thus blinded, in the most acute pain, the suffering creature would often be struck down and clubbed near to death, only to revive for the more terrible torture of burning at the stake. Indian military tactics, in all of their movements in the West up to the time of the advance of St. Clair's army, consisted simply in cunning, stealthy dashes at the unprotected settlements, massacre of all who fell into their hands, and rapid retreat to their own country. They would ambush an advancing foe, and withdraw as soon as the enemy would show fight. In a fight, their whole force would be formed in irregular line, every one behind a log, or stump, or tree; there never was fair, stand-up fight in them; but they were the best of flankers, and fought and ran away, to live to fight another day; yet there was not a drop of cowardice in their composition. One of the rules among all of the tribes was that, when on the war-path, if a brave did not promptly obey the command of his chief, he was killed on the spot. The cruel massacre of noncombatants, the horrible torture of prisoners, and savage butchery, stamped their savage warfare as fiendish. The hardy pioneers. used as they were to scenes of bloodshed and the misery left in the wake of a band of savages, were often brought to experiences and events more devilish than any that had preceded. An Indian would not hesitate to crush out the brains of a family of little children with his tomahawk, in the presence of the pioneer father and mother, then, with equal cruelty, kill them, and carry off the scalps of the whole family. Thousands of such devilish deeds were perpetrated, and it is no wonder that, in the progress of border warfare, no quarter was given nor mercy asked.

It would be almost impossible to overdraw the horrible pictures of torture and death that were the experience of thousands of the emigrants to the West. Not many prisoners were taken by the Indians, and none by the whites. The result of a battle was shown on the spot, by the numbers of killed and wounded. Chapter after chapter could be filled with the record of shocking cruelties, but the terrible stories of these wrongs committed are familiar to all, and, for the purposes of this book, it is not necessary to reproduce them. From the time of the beginning of emigration to the West, the whole attention of the tribes was devoted to jealously guarding their lands north of the Ohio from encroachment by the whites. All interests were united, and gradually developed into open

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resistance, then to aggressive war against a hated enemy. The tribes were no longer wasted by war among themselves. All energy, all strength of the united nations was required in a common cause against a common enemy.

It sometimes happened that, when the prisoners were not immediately murdered, circumstances influenced the Indians to spare their lives and adopt them in their families. Carefully guarded against escape, they were marched to the villages, and duly initiated into the simplicity of Indian life and habits. The men were made hunters, but were carefully watched against temptation to escape. Some of them married squaws, and being satisfied with the situation, remained the rest of their lives. The most of them, however, escaped, while others were taken to Detroit and exchanged or ransomed. Captured women were assigned to the wigwams of the elder Indians to assist in work, and generally accepted the first opportunity for exchange. Boys and girls who were among the prisoners were cared for tenderly, and became greatly attached to their new friends. Their associates were the young Indians, with whom they ran wild in the woods, hunted with and fished, paddled in the canoes, and trapped along the streams. With them they grew up, and enjoyed the fascination of roaming through the woods as hunters for months at a time. Such as these, who had learned to Jove the free life in the forests, it was hard to reclaim. After peace was declared, when many of them were given up under treaty stipulations that required the surrender of all white captives, many having forgotten relationships of their infant years, and who had formed strong attachments among the Indians, refused to return to civilized life. A Shawnee chief, in surrendering several of these child captives, addressed the officer as follows: "Father, we have brought your flesh and blood to you. They have all been united to us by adoption, and though we now deliver them, we shall always look upon them as our relations whenever the Great Spirit is pleased that we may meet them. We have taken as much care of them as if they were our own flesh and blood. They have now become unacquainted with your customs and manners, and therefore we request you to use them tenderly and kindly, that they may live contentedly with you."

Interpreters for the tribes were generally white men who had been boy captives and had grown up with the Indians. Some of them were married to squaws, reared families and acquired great influence over the tribes. There were white men who voluntarily went to live with the Indians, some of them becoming the most inhuman of wretches in their persecution and butchery of the frontiersmen. With the names of the Girtys was associated everything cruel and fiendish; neither age nor sex was respected by them; they became skilled in the ways of savage life and reveled in carnage and bloodshed.